Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-8mjnm Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-28T23:44:20.971Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Social Identification and Ethnic Conflict

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 April 2013

NICHOLAS SAMBANIS*
Affiliation:
Yale University
MOSES SHAYO*
Affiliation:
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
*
Nicholas Sambanis, Yale University (nicholas.sambanis@yale.edu).
Moses Shayo, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (mshayo@huji.ac.il).

Abstract

When do ethnic cleavages increase the risk of conflict? Under what conditions is a strong common identity likely to emerge, thereby reducing that risk? How are patterns of social identification shaped by conflict? We draw on empirical results regarding the nature and determinants of group identification to develop a simple model that addresses these questions. The model highlights the possibility of vicious and virtuous cycles where conflict and identification patterns reinforce each other. It also shows how processes of ethnic identification amplify the importance of political institutions and traces the effects of national status and perceived differences across ethnic groups. Finally, we demonstrate how a small but sufficiently potent group of ethnic radicals can derail a peaceful equilibrium, leading to the polarization of the entire population. We reexamine several historical cases as well as empirical correlates of civil wars in light of these results.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Acemoglu, Daron, and Robinson, James. 2000. “Why Did the West Extend the Franchise? Democracy, Inequality and Growth in Historical Perspective.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 115: 1167–99.Google Scholar
Adanić, Stjepan et al. 1992. Mass Killing and Genocide in Croatia 1991/92: A Book of Evidence. Zagreb: Hrvatska sveucilisma naklada.Google Scholar
Alexander, Marc, and Christia, Fotini. 2011. “Context Modularity of Human Altruism.” Science 334 (6061): 1392–94.Google Scholar
Appadurai, Arjun. 2006. Fear of Small Numbers: An Essay on the Geography of Anger. Durham, NC. Public Planet Books/Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Aziz, Mahir A. 2011. The Kurds of Iraq: Ethnonationalism and National Identity in Iraqi Kurdistan. London: I. B. Tauris.Google Scholar
Baliga, and Sjöström, . 2012. “The Strategy of Manipulating Conflict.” American Economic Review 102: 2897–922.Google Scholar
Bates, Robert H. 1983. “Modernization, Ethnic Competition, and the Rationality of Politics in Contemporary Africa.” In State versus Ethnic Claims: Africa Policy Dilemma, eds. Rothchild, D. and Olorunsola, V. A.. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 152–71.Google Scholar
Bates, Robert H. 2008a. When Things Fell Apart: State Failure in Late Century Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bates, Robert H. 2008b. “State Failure.” Annual Review of Political Science 11: 112.Google Scholar
Bengio, O. 2012. The Kurds of Iraq: Building a State Within a State. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Bennett, Christopher. 1995. Yugoslavia's Bloody Collapse. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Berrebi, Claude, and Klor, Esteban. 2008. “Are Voters Sensitive to Terrorism? Direct Evidence from the Israeli Electorate.” American Political Science Review 102 (3): 279301.Google Scholar
Besley, Timothy, and Persson, Torsten. 2011. “The Logic of Political Violence.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 126 (3): 1411–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bettencourt, Ann, Charlton, Kelly, Dorr, Nancy, and Hume, Deborah. 2001. “Status differences and in-group bias: A meta-analytic examination of the effects of status stability, status legitimacy, and group permeability.” Psychological Bulletin 127: 520542.Google Scholar
Blackbourn, David. 1998. The Long Nineteenth Century: A History of Germany, 1780–1918. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bornstein, Gary. 2003. “Intergroup Conflict: Individual, Group, and Collective Interests.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 7 (2): 129–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Botev, Nikolai. 1994. “Where East Meats West: Ethnic Intermarriage in the Former Yugoslavia, 1962 to 1989.” American Sociological Review 59: 461480.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bourhis, Richard Y., and Gagnon, Andre. 2001. “Social Orientations in the Minimal Group Paradigm.” In Intergroup Processes: Blackwell Handbook in Social Psychology, eds. Brown, R., and Gaertner, S.. Vol. 4. Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 89111.Google Scholar
Brass, Paul. 1997. Theft of an Idol. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Breuilly, John. 2005. “Nationalism and the First Unification.” In Germany's Two Unifications: Anticipations, Experiences, Responses, John Breuilly and Ronald Speirs. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Brewer, Marilynn B. 1979. “In-Group Bias in the Minimal Group Situation: A Cognitive-Motivational Analysis.” Psychological Bulletin 86: 307–24.Google Scholar
Bringa, Tone. 1995. Being Muslim the Bosnian Way. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Bromlei, Yu V., and Kashuba, M. S.. 1982. Brak I Semia u Narodov Yugoslavii [Marriage and Family Among the Yugoslav People]. Moscow: Nauka.Google Scholar
Brubaker, Rogers. 1998. “Myths and Misconceptions in the Study of Nationalism.” In The State of the Nation: Ernest Gellner and the Theory of Nationalism, ed. Hall, John. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 272305.Google Scholar
Brubaker, Roger. 1996. Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bueno de Mesquita, Ethan. 2010. “Regime Change and Revolutionary Entrepreneurs.” American Political Science Review 104 (3): 446–66.Google Scholar
Bueno de Mesquita, Ethan. 2011. “Rebel Tactics.” University of Chicago, unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Burg, Steven L., and Berbaum, Michael L.. 1989. “Community, Integration, and Stability in Multinational Yugoslavia.” American Political Science Review 83 (2): 535–54.Google Scholar
Caselli, Francesco, and Coleman II, Wilbur J.. 2013. “On the Theory of Ethnic Conflict.” Journal of the European Economic Association, forthcoming.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chandra, Kanchan. 2006. “What Is Ethnic Identity and Does It Matter?Annual Review of Political Science 9: 397424.Google Scholar
Chandra, Kanchan, and Boulet, Cilanne. 2012. “A Language for Thinking About Ethnic Identity Change.” In Constructivist Theories of Ethnic Politics, ed. Chandra, Kanchan. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, Yan, and Li, Sherry Xin. 2009. “Group Identity and Social Preferences.” American Economic Review 99 (1): 431–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Lenard J. 1995. Broken Bonds: Yugoslavia's Disintegration and Balkan Politics in Transition. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Collier, Paul, and Hoeffler, Anke. 2004. “Greed and Grievance in Civil War.” Oxford Economic Papers 56: 563–95.Google Scholar
Darden, Keith. 2011. Resisting Occupation: Mass Literacy and the Creation of Durable National Loyalties. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Davis, Eric M. 2005. “History Matters: Past as Prologue in Building Democracy in Iraq.” Orbis 49 (2): 229–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawson, Michael C. 1995. Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African-American Politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
De Figueiredo, Rui, and Weingast, Barry. 1999. “The Rationality of Fear: Political Opportunism and Ethnic Conflict.” In Civil Wars, Insecurity, and Intervention, eds. Walter, B. and Snyder, J.. New York: Columbia University Press, 261302.Google Scholar
DellaVigna, Stefano, Enikolopov, Ruben, Mironova, Vera, Petrova, Maria, and Zhuravskaya, Ekaterina. 2012. “Cross-border Media and Nationalism: Evidence from Serbian Radio in Croatia.” University of California, Berkeley, unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Deutsch, Karl W. 1953. Nationalism and Social Communication: An Inquiry Into the Foundations of Nationality. Cambridge, MA: Published jointly by the Technology Press of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Wiley, New York.Google Scholar
Diez Medrano, Juan. 1995. Divided Nations: Class, Politics, and Nationalism in the Basque Country and Catalonia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Dovidio, John F., Gaertner, Samuel L., Shnabel, Nurit, Saguy, Tamar, and Johnson, James. 2009. “Recategorization and Prosocial Behavior.” In The Psychology of Prosocial Behavior: Group Processes, Intergroup Relations, and Helping, eds. Stürmer, S. and Snyder, M.. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Doyle, Michael, and Sambanis, Nicholas. 2006. Making War and Building Peace: United Nations Peace Operations. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dube, Oeindrila, and Vargas, Juan. 2013. “Commodity Price Shocks And Civil Conflict: Evidence From Colombia.”Review of Economic Studies, forthcoming.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunning, Thad, and Harrison, Lauren. 2011. “Cross-Cutting Cleavages and Ethnic Voting: An Experimental Study of Cousinage in Mali.” American Political Science Review 104 (1): 1932.Google Scholar
Eifert, Benn, Miguel, Edward, and Posner, Daniel N.. 2010. “Political Competition and Ethnic Identification in Africa.” American Journal of Political Science 54 (2): 494510.Google Scholar
Esteban, Joan, and Ray, Debraj. 2008. “On the Salience of Ethnic Conflict.” American Economic Review 98 (5): 2185–202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Esteban, Joan, and Ray, Debraj. 2011. “Linking Conflict to Inequality and Polarization.” American Economic Review 101 (4): 1345–74.Google Scholar
Esteban, Joan, Mayoral, Laura, and Ray, Debraj. 2012. “Ethnicity and Conflict: An Empirical Study.” American Economic Review 102 (4): 1310–42.Google Scholar
Fearon, James. 1995. “Rationalist Explanations for War.” International Organization 49 (3): 379414.Google Scholar
Fearon, James. 2003. “Ethnic and Cultural Diversity by Country.” Journal of Economic Growth 8 (2): 195222.Google Scholar
Fearon, James, and Laitin, David. 2000. “Violence and the Social Construction of Ethnic Identity.” International Organization 54 (4): 845–77.Google Scholar
Fearon, James, and Laitin, David. 2003. “Ethnicity, Insurgency and Civil War.” American Political Science Review 97: 7590.Google Scholar
Fink, Erwin. 2005. “For Country, Court and Church: The Bavarian Patriots’ Party and Bavarian Regional Identity in the Era of German Unification.” In Germany's Two Unifications: Anticipations, Experiences, Responses, eds. Breuilly, John and Speirs, Ronald. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Fong, Christina M., and Luttmer, Erzo F. P.. 2009. “What Determines Giving to Hurricane Katrina Victims? Experimental Evidence on Racial Group Loyalty.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 1 (2): 6487.Google Scholar
Friedrich, Paul. 1970. Agrarian Revolt in a Mexican Village. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Gagnon, Valère Philip Jr. 2004. The Myth of Ethnic War: Serbia and Croatia in the 1990s. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Gärdenfors, Peter 2000. Conceptual Spaces: The Geometry of Thought. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Ghobarah, Hazem, Huth, Paul, and Russett, Bruce. 2003. “Civil Wars Kill and Maim People Long After the Shooting Stops.” American Political Science Review 97 (2): 189202.Google Scholar
Glenny, Misha. 1992. The Fall of Yugoslavia: The Third Balkan War. London: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Gould, Eric, and Klor, Esteban. 2010. “Does Terrorism Work?Quarterly Journal of Economics 125 (4): 1459–510.Google Scholar
Habyarimana, James, Humphreys, Macartan, Posner, Daniel N., and Weinstein, Jeremy. 2007. “Why Does Ethnic Diversity Undermine Public Goods Provision?American Political Science Review 101 (4): 709–25.Google Scholar
Hegre, Håvard, and Sambanis, Nicholas. 2006. “Sensitivity Analysis of Empirical Results on Civil War Onset.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 50 (4): 508–35.Google Scholar
Herbst, Jeffrey. 2000. States and Power in Africa. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Hickman, Christine B. 1997. “The Devil and the One-Drop Rule: Racial Categories, African Americans and the US Census.” Michigan Law Review 95 (5): 1161–97.Google Scholar
Hirshleifer, Jack. 1995. “Theorizing about Conflict.” In Handbook of Defense Economics, eds. Hartley, K. and Sandler, T.. Vol. 1. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 165–92.Google Scholar
Hobsbawn, Eric, and Ranger, Terence. 1992. The Invention of Tradition. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Horowitz, Donald L. 1985. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Horowitz, Donald L. 2001. The Deadly Ethnic Riot. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, Matthew, and Morelli, Massimo. 2011. “The Reasons for Wars—An Updated Survey.” In The Handbook on the Political Economy of War, eds. Christopher Coyne and Rachel Mathers. Elgar Publishing.Google Scholar
Judah, Tim. 1997. The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis. 2008. “Ethnic Defection in Civil War.” Comparative Political Studies 41 (8): 1043–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis, and Sambanis, Nicholas. 2005. “Bosnia's Civil War: Origins and Violence Dynamics.” In Understanding Civil War: Evidence and Analysis. Volume 2: Europe, Central Asia, and Other Regions, eds. Collier, Paul and Sambanis, Nicholas. Washington, DC: World Bank Publications, 191230.Google Scholar
Kaufmann, Chaim. 1996. “Possible and Impossible Solutions to Ethnic Conflict.” International Security 20: 136–75.Google Scholar
Keen, David. 2012. “Greed and Grievance in Civil War.” International Affairs 88 (4): 757–77.Google Scholar
Kelly, Alfred. 1993. “The Franco-Prussian War and Unification in German History Schoolbooks.” In Walter Pape, 1870/71-1989/90: German Unifications and the Change of Literary Discourse. Berlin: W. De Gruyter.Google Scholar
Kimenyi, Mwangi S., and Ndung'u, Njuguna S.. 2005. “Sporadic Ethnic Violence: Why has Kenya not Experienced a Full-blown Civil War?” In Understanding Civil War: Evidence and Analysis. Volume 1: Africa, eds. Collier, Paul and Sambanis, Nicholas. Washington, DC: World Bank Publications, 123–56.Google Scholar
Klor, Esteban, and Shayo, Moses. 2010. “Social Identity and Preferences over Redistribution.” Journal of Public Economics 94: 269–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knežević, Aleksandar, and Tufegdžić, Vojislav. 1995. Kriminal Koji je Izmenio Srbiju (Crime that Changed Serbia). Belgrade: Radio B-92.Google Scholar
Kuran, Timor. 1989. “Sparks and Prairie Fires: A Theory of Unanticipated Political Revolution.” Public Choice 61 (1): 4174.Google Scholar
Laitin, David. 1995. “Marginality: A Microperspective.” Rationality and Society 7 (1): 3157.Google Scholar
Laitin, David. 1998. Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Lipponen, Jukka, Helkama, Klaus, and Juslin, Milla. 2003. “Subgroup Identification, Superordinate Identification and Intergroup Bias Between the Subgroups.” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 6, 239–50.Google Scholar
Lipset, Seymour M., and Rokkan, Stephen. Eds. 1967. Party Systems and Voter Alignments. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Lohmann, Suzanne. 1993. “A Signaling Model of Informative and Manipulative Political Action.” American Political Science Review 87 (2): 319–33.Google Scholar
Lohmann, Suzanne. 1994. “The Dynamics of information Cascades: The Monday Demonstrations in Leipzig, East German, 1989–1991.” World Politics 47 (1): 42101.Google Scholar
Malcolm, Noel. 1999. Kosovo: A Short History. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Mallon, Florencia. 1995. Peasant and Nation: The Making of Postcolonial Mexico and Peru. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Mann, Michael. 2005. The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Manning, Alan, and Roy, Sanchari. 2010. “Culture Clash or Culture Club? National Identity in Britain.” The Economic Journal 120 (February): F72-F100.Google Scholar
Miguel, Edward. 2004. “Tribe or Nation? Nation Building and Public Goods in Kenya Versus Tanzania.” World Politics 56: 327–62.Google Scholar
Edward, Miguel, Satyanath, Shanker, and Sargenti, Ernest. 2004. “Economic Shocks and Civil Conflict: An Instrumental Variables Approach.” Journal of Political Economy 112 (4): 725–53.Google Scholar
Miles, William F. S., and Rochefort, David A.. 1991. “Nationalism Versus Ethnic Identity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” American Political Science Review 85 (2): 393403.Google Scholar
Milisevic, Aleksandra. 2004. “Joining Serbia's Wars: Volunteer and Draft-Dodgers, 1991–1995.” UCLA, Ph.D. dissertation.Google Scholar
Montalvo, Jose G., and Reynal-Querol, Marta. 2005. “Ethnic Polarization, Potential Conflict, and Civil Wars.” American Economic Review 95 (3): 796816.Google Scholar
Mueller, John. 2000. “The Banality of “Ethnic War.” International Security 25 (1): 4270.Google Scholar
Mummendey, Amelie, and Wenzel, Michael. 1999. “Social Discrimination and Tolerance in Intergroup Relations: Reactions to Intergroup Difference.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 3: 158174.Google Scholar
Murdoch, James C., and Sandler, Todd. 2002. “Economic Growth, Civil Wars, and Spatial Spillovers.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 46 (1): 91110.Google Scholar
Ndikumana, Léonce, and Emizet, Kisangani. 2003. “The Economics of Civil War: The Case of the Democratic Republic of Congo.” In Understanding Civil War: Evidence and Analysis. Volume 1: Africa, eds. Collier, Paul and Sambanis, Nicholas. Washington, DC: World Bank Publications.Google Scholar
Nosofsky, Robert M. 1986. “Attention, Similarity and the Identification-Categorization Relationship.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 115 (1): 3957.Google Scholar
Oberschall, Anthony. 2001. “From Ethnic Cooperation to Violence and War in Yugoslavia.” In Ethnopolitical Warfare: Causes, Consequences, and Possible Solutions, eds. Chirot, Daniel and Seligman, Martin. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 119–50.Google Scholar
Petersen, Roger D. 2002. Understanding Ethnic Violence: Fear, Hatred, and Resentment in Twentieth-Century Eastern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Petrovic, Ruza. 1986. “Ethnically Mixed Marriages in Yugoslavia.” Sociologija 28 (Suppl.): 229–39.Google Scholar
Posen, Barry. 1993. “The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conflict.” In Ethnic Conflict and International Security, ed. Brown, Michael. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 103–25.Google Scholar
Posner, Daniel N. 2005. Institutions and Ethnic Politics in Africa. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Reno, William. 1995. Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Robinson, Amanda Lea. 2009. “National Versus Ethnic Identity in Africa: State, Group, and Individual Level Correlates of National Identification.” Afrobarometer Working Paper Series, No 112.Google Scholar
Sambanis, Nicholas. 2005. “Poverty and the Organization of Political Violence: A Review and Some Conjectures.” In Brookings Trade Forum 2004, eds. Collins, Susan M. and Graham, Carol. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 165222.Google Scholar
Sambanis, Nicholas, and Schulhofer-Wohl, Jonah. 2009. “What's In A Line? Is Partition the Solution to Civil War?International Security 34 (2): 82118.Google Scholar
Sambanis, Nicholas, Schulhofer-Wohl, Jonah, and Shayo, Moses. 2012. “Parochialism as a Central Challenge in Counterinsurgency.” Science 336 (6083): 805–08.Google Scholar
Shayo, Moses. 2009. “A Model of Social Identity with an Application to Political Economy: Nation, Class and Redistribution.” American Political Science Review 103 (2): 147–74.Google Scholar
Shayo, Moses, and Zussman, Asaf. 2011. “Judicial Ingroup Bias in the Shadow of Terrorism.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 126 (3): 1447–84.Google Scholar
Siber, Ivan. 1993. “The Impact of Nationalism, Values and Ideological Orientation on Multi-Party Elections in Croatia.” In The Tragedy of Yugoslavia, eds. Seroka, J. and Pavlovic, V.. New York: M. E. Sharp.Google Scholar
Sikavica, Stipe, 1997, “The Army's Collapse.” In Burn This House: The Making and Unmaking of Yugoslavia, eds. Udovicki, Jasminka and Ridgeway, James. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 130–52.Google Scholar
Skaperdas, Stergios. 1992. “Cooperation, Conflict, and Power in the Absence of Property Rights.” American Economic Review 82 (4): 720–39.Google Scholar
Smith, Anthony D. 1986. The Ethnic Origins of Nations. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Smith, Rogers M. 2001. “Citizenship and the Politics of People-Building.” Citizenship Studies 5 (1): 7396.Google Scholar
Soares, Rodrigo. 2006. “The Welfare Cost of Violence Across Countries.” Journal of Health Economics 25: 821–46.Google Scholar
Sonin, Konstantin, Guriev, Sergei, and Kolotilin, Anton. 2011. “Determinants of Expropriation in the Oil Sector: A Theory and Evidence from Panel Data.” Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization, 27 (2): 301–23.Google Scholar
Staerklé, Christian, Sidanius, Jim, Green, Eva G. T., and Molina, Ludwin E.. 2010. “Ethnic Minority-Majority Asymmetry in National Attitudes around the World: A Multilevel Analysis.” Political Psychology 31 (4): 491519.Google Scholar
Steinberg, Jonathan. 2011. Bismarck: A Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Steinbach, Matthias. 2002. Abgrund Metz: Kriegserfahrung, Belagerungsalltag Und Nationale Erziehung Im Schatten Einer Festung 1870/71. [Metz Abyss: war experience, daily life of the siege, and national education in the shadow of a fortress 1870/71.] München: Oldenbourg.Google Scholar
Stitkovac, Ejub. 1997. “Croatia: The First War.” In Burn This House: The Making and Unmaking of Yugoslavia, eds. Udovicki, Jasminka and Ridgeway, James. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Sudetic, Chuck. 1998. Blood and Vengeance: One Family's Story of the War in Bosnia. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Tajfel, Henri, and Turner, John. 1986. “The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior.” In Psychology of Intergroup Relations, eds. Worchel S. and W. Austin. Chicago: Nelson Hall, 724.Google Scholar
Tajfel, Henri, Billig, Michael G., Bundy, Robert P., and Flament, Claude. 1971. “Social Categorization and Intergroup Behavior.” European Journal of Social Psychology 1 (2): 149–78.Google Scholar
Turner, John, Hogg, Michael, Oakes, Penelope, Reicher, Stephen, and Wetherell, Margaret. 1987. Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Vanchena, Lorie A. 2000. Political Poetry in Periodicals and the Shaping of German National Consciousness in the Nineteenth Century. New York: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Velikonja, Mitja. 1992. Religious Separation and Political Intolerance in Bosnia-Herzegovina. College Station, TX. Texas A&M University Press.Google Scholar
Visser, Reidar 2010. A Responsible End? The United States and the Iraqi Transition, 2005–2010. Charlottesville, VA: Just World Books.Google Scholar
Walser Smith, Helmut. 2005. “The Structure of German National Consciousness: Protestants, Catholics and Jews, 1871.” In Germany's Two Unifications: Anticipations, Experiences, Responses, eds. Breuilly, John and Speirs, Ronald. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Weber, Eugen. 1976. Peasants Into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870–1914. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Weichlein, Siegfried. 2000. “Saxons into Germans: The Progress of the National Idea in Saxony after 1866.” In Saxony in German History: Culture, Society, and Politics, 1830–1933, ed. Retallack, James. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press, 166–79.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, Steven. 2004. Votes and Violence: Electoral Competition and Ethnic Riots in India. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wimmer, Andreas. 2008. “The Making and Unmaking of Ethnic Boundaries: A Multilevel Process Theory.” American Journal of Sociology 113 (4): 9701022.Google Scholar
Woodward, Susan L. 1995. Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.Google Scholar
Zimmermann, Warren. 1996. Origins of a Catastrophe: Yugoslavia and Its Destroyers. New York: Times Books.Google Scholar