Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-xxrs7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-29T03:41:35.973Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

States, Insurgents, and Wartime Political Orders

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 May 2012

Paul Staniland
Affiliation:
University of Chicago. E-mail: paul@uchicago.edu

Abstract

Bargains, deals, and tacit understandings between states and insurgents are common in civil wars. This fascinating mix of conflict and cooperation shapes patterns of politics, governance, and violence. Building on recent findings about state formation, I offer a conceptual typology of political orders amidst civil war. Wartime political orders vary according to the distribution of territorial control and the level of cooperation between states and insurgents. Orders range from collusion and shared sovereignty to spheres of influence and tacit coexistence to clashing monopolies and guerrilla disorder. Examples from contemporary South Asian conflicts illustrate these concepts, which are scalable and portable across contexts. Scholars need to think more creatively about the political-military arrangements that emerge and evolve during war. A key policy implication is that there are many ways of forging stability without creating a counterinsurgent Leviathan.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ahram, Ariel. 2011. Proxy Warriors: The Rise and Fall of State-Sponsored Militias. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andreas, Peter. 2008. Blue Helmets and Black Markets: The Business of Survival in the Siege of Sarajevo. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Arjona, Ana. 2010. “Social Order in Civil War.” Ph.D. diss. Yale University.Google Scholar
Arreguin-Toft, Ivan. 2001. “How the Weak Win Wars: A Theory of Asymmetric Conflict.” International Security 26(1): 93128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Autesserre, Séverine. 2010. The Trouble with the Congo: Local Violence and the Failure of International Peacebuilding. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barfield, Thomas. 2011. “Afghanistan's Ethnic Puzzle.” Foreign Affairs 90(5): 5465.Google Scholar
Barkey, Karen. 1994. Bandits and Bureaucrats: The Ottoman Route to State Centralization. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Barkey, Karen. 2008. Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baruah, Sanjib. 2003. “Confronting Constructionism: Ending India's Naga War.” Journal of Peace Research 40(3): 321–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baruah, Sanjib. 2005. Durable Disorder: Understanding the Politics of Northeast India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bates, Robert H. 2008. When Things Fell Apart: State Failure in Late-Century Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bayly, C.A. 1996. An Empire of Information: Political Intelligence and Social Communication in North India, 1780–1880. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Berman, Eli. 2009. Radical, Religious, and Violent: The New Economics of Terrorism. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berman, Eli, Shapiro, Jacob, and Felter, Joseph. Forthcoming. “Can Hearts and Minds be Bought? The Economics of Counterinsurgency in Iraq.” Journal of Political Economy.Google Scholar
Biddle, Stephen. 2009. “Is There a Middle Way?” New Republic, October 20. http://www.tnr.com/article/world/there-middle-way, accessed January 3, 2012.Google Scholar
Boone, Catherine. 2003. Political Topographies of the African State: Territorial Authority and Institutional Choice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bose, Sumantra. 2007. “JKLF and JKHM: Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front and Jammu and Kashmir Hizb-ul Mujahideen.” In Terror, Insurgency, and the State, ed. Tirman, John, Heiberg, Marianne, and O'Leary, Brendan. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Brass, Paul R. 1997. Theft of an Idol: Text and Context in the Representation of Collective Violence. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Bureau of Intelligence and Research. 1982. “The Afghan Resistance Movement.” U.S. Department of State. March 16. Accessed through the Digital National Security Archive, May 25, 2011.Google Scholar
Callahan, Mary P. 2003. Making Enemies: War and State Building in Burma. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Cederman, Lars-Erik, Wimmer, Andreas, and Min, Brian. 2010. “Why Do Ethnic Groups Rebel? New Data and Analysis.” World Politics 62(1): 87119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Centeno, Miguel Angel. 2002. Blood and Debt: War and the Nation-State in Latin America. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.Google Scholar
Chakravarti, Sudeep. 2008. Red Sun: Travels in Naxalite Country. New Delhi: Penguin.Google Scholar
Chiarelli, Peter W., and Michaelis, Patrick R.. 2005. “Winning the Peace: The Requirements for Full Spectrum Operations.” Military Review 85(4): 417.Google Scholar
Christensen, Thomas J. 2011. Worse Than a Monolith: Alliance Politics and Problems of Coercive Diplomacy in Asia. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Christia, Fotini. 2008. “The Closest of Enemies: Alliance Formation in the Afghan and Bosnian Civil Wars.” Ph.D. diss. Harvard University.Google Scholar
Clausewitz, Carl von. 1984. On War. ed. Howard, Michael Eliot and Paret, Peter. Rev. ed.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, Dara Kay. 2010. “Explaining Sexual Violence during Civil War.” Ph.D. diss. Stanford University.Google Scholar
Coll, Steve. 2004. Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001. New York: Penguin.Google Scholar
Collier, David, and Mahon, James E.. 1993. “Conceptual ‘Stretching’ Revisited: Adapting Categories in Comparative Analysis.” American Political Science Review 87(4): 845–55.Google Scholar
Collier, David, and Levitsky, Steven. 1997. “Democracy with Adjectives: Conceptual Innovation in Comparative Research.” World Politics 49(3): 430–51.Google Scholar
Collier, Paul. 2003. Breaking the Conflict Trap: Civil War and Development Policy. A World Bank Policy Research Report. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Connable, Ben, and Libicki, Martin. 2010. How Insurgencies End. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.Google Scholar
Cramer, Christopher. 2007.Violence in Developing Countries: War, Memory, Progress. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Cunningham, David E., Gleditsch, Kristian Skrede, and Salehyan, Idean. 2009. “It Takes Two: A Dyadic Analysis of Civil War Duration and Outcome.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 53(4): 570–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darden, Keith. Forthcoming. Resisting Occupation: Mass Literacy and the Creation of Durable National Loyalties. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Davis, Diane, and Pereira, Anthony, eds. 2003. Irregular Armed Forces and Their Role in Politics and State Formation. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dhillon, K. S. 2006. Identity and Survival: Sikh Militancy in India, 1978–1993. New Delhi: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Diehl, James M. 1977. Paramilitary Politics in Weimar Germany. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Dorronsoro, Gilles. 2005. Revolution Unending: Afghanistan, 1979 to the Present. New York: Columbia University Press, in association with the Centre d'Études et de Recherches Internationales, Paris.Google Scholar
Downing, Brian M. 1992. The Military Revolution and Political Change: Origins of Democracy and Autocracy in Early Modern Europe. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Driscoll, Jesse. 2009. “Exiting Anarchy: Militia Politics after the Post-Soviet Wars.” Ph.D. diss. Stanford University.Google Scholar
Economist. 2010. “Ending the Red Terror.” February 25, http://www.economist.com/node/15579946. (Accessed March 20, 2012).Google Scholar
Ertman, Thomas. 1997. Birth of the Leviathan: Building States and Regimes in Medieval and Early Modern Europe. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fearon, James D. 1995. “Rationalist Explanations for War.” International Organization 49(3): 379414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fearon, James D., and Laitin, David D.. 1996. “Explaining Interethnic Cooperation.” American Political Science Review 90(4): 715–35.Google Scholar
Fearon, James D., and Laitin, David D.. 2003. “Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War.” American Political Science Review 97(1): 7590.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fearon, James D., and Laitin, David D.. 2004. “Neotrusteeship and the Problem of Weak States.” International Security 28(4): 543.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Filkins, Dexter. 2010. “Afghan Offensive is New War Model,” New York Times, February 12, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/13/world/asia/13kabul.html. (Accessed March 20, 2012).Google Scholar
Fischer, Martha, and Schmelzle, Beatrix, eds. 2009. Building Peace in the Absence of States: Challenging the Discourse on State Failure. Berlin: Berghof Research Center.Google Scholar
Gambetta, Diego. 1993. The Sicilian Mafia: The Business of Private Protection. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Ganguly, Sumit. 2009. “Slow Learning: Lessons from India's Counterinsurgency Operations in Kashmir.” In India and Counterinsurgency: Lessons Learned, ed. Ganguly, Sumit and Fidler, David. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Gayer, Laurent, and Jaffrelot, Christophe. 2009. Armed Militias of South Asia: Fundamentalists, Maoists and Separatists. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Gerring, John. 1999. “What Makes a Concept Good? A Criterial Framework for Understanding Concept Formation in the Social Sciences.” Polity 31(3): 357–93.Google Scholar
Giustozzi, Antonio. 2009. Empires of Mud: War and Warlords of Afghanistan. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Goertz, Gary. 2006. Social Science Concepts: A User's Guide. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldstone, Jack. 2003. “Comparative Historical Analysis and Knowledge Accumulation in the Study of Revolutions.” In Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences, ed. Mahoney, James and Rueschemeyer, Dietrich. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Goodwin, Jeff. 2001. No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements, 1945–1991. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harper, T.N. 2001. The End of Empire and the Making of Malaya. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hazarika, Sanjoy. 1994. Strangers of the Mist: Tales of War and Peace from India's Northeast. New Delhi: Viking, Penguin Books India.Google Scholar
Hechter, Michael. 2000. Containing Nationalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hechter, Michael, and Kabiri, Nika. 2008. “Attaining Social Order in Iraq.” In Order, Conflict, and Violence, ed. Kalyvas, Stathis, Shapiro, Ian, and Masoud, Tarek. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Herbst, Jeffrey Ira. 2000. States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Humphreys, Macartan, and Weinstein, Jeremy M.. 2006. “Handling and Manhandling Civilians in Civil War.” American Political Science Review 100(3): 429–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
International Crisis Group. 2010. War Crimes in Sri Lanka. Brussels: International Crisis Group.Google Scholar
Jackson, Colin F. 2008. “Defeat in Victory: Organizational Learning Dysfunction in Counterinsurgency.” Ph.D. diss. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Google Scholar
Jalal, Ayesha. 1995. Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: A Comparative and Historical Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2003. “The Ontology of ‘Political Violence’: Action and Identity in Civil Wars.” Perspectives on Politics 1(3): 475–94.Google Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2006. The Logic of Violence in Civil War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2008. “Review of The New U.S. Army/Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Field Manual.” Perspectives on Politics 6(2): 351–53.Google Scholar
Knight, Jack. 1992. Institutions and Social Conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krasner, Stephen D. 2011. “State, Power, Anarchism.” Perspectives on Politics 9(1): 7983.Google Scholar
Krepinevich, Andrew F. 1986. The Army and Vietnam. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Kreutz, Joakim. 2010. “How and When Armed Conflicts End: Introducing the UCDP Conflict Termination Dataset.” Journal of Peace Research 47(2): 243–50.Google Scholar
Lacina, Bethany. 2009. “The Problem of Political Stability in Northeast India: Local Ethnic Autocracy and the Rule of Law.” Asian Survey 49(6): 9981020.Google Scholar
Lake, David. 2010. “The Practice and Theory of US Statebuilding.” Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding 4(3): 257–84.Google Scholar
Levi, Margaret. 1988. Of Rule and Revenue. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Lieven, Anatol. 2011. Pakistan: A Hard Country. New York: Public Affairs.Google Scholar
Long, Austin. 2008. “The Anbar Awakening.” Survival: Global Politics and Strategy 50(2): 6794.Google Scholar
Long, Austin. 2010. “Small Is Beautiful: The Counterterrorism Option in Afghanistan.” Orbis 54(2): 199214.Google Scholar
Lyall, Jason, and Wilson, Isaiah III. 2009. “Rage against the Machines: Explaining Outcomes in Counterinsurgency Wars.” International Organization 63(1): 67106.Google Scholar
Mack, Andrew. 1975. “Why Big Nations Lose Small Wars: The Politics of Asymmetric Conflict.” World Politics 27(2): 175200.Google Scholar
Mahoney, James. 2010. Colonialism and Postcolonial Development: Spanish America in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Maley, William. 2002. The Afghanistan Wars. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Mampilly, Zachariah. 2009. “A Marriage of Inconvenience: Tsunami Aid and the Unraveling of the LTTE and the GoSL's Complex Dependency.” Civil Wars 11(3): 302–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mampilly, Zachariah. 2011. Rebel Rulers: Insurgent Governance and Civilian Life During War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Marten, Kimberly Zisk. 2006/7. “Warlordism in Comparative Perspective.” International Security 31(3): 4173.Google Scholar
McAdam, Doug, Tarrow, Sidney, and Tilly, Charles. 2001. Dynamics of Contention. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Menkhaus, Kenneth John. 2006/7. “Governance without Government in Somalia: Spoilers, State Building, and the Politics of Coping.” International Security 31(3): 74106.Google Scholar
Merom, Gil. 2003. How Democracies Lose Small Wars: State, Society, and the Failures of France in Algeria, Israel in Lebanon, and the United States in Vietnam. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Migdal, Joel S. 1988. Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Mukhopadhyay, Dipali. Forthcoming. Warlords, Strongmen Governors, and State Building in Afghanistan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Murtazashvili, Jennifer Brick. 2009. “The Microfoundations of State Building: Informal Institutions and Local Public Goods in Rural Afghanistan.” Ph.D. diss. University of Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Myerson, Roger B. 2009. “A Field Manual for the Cradle of Civilization.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 53(3): 470–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nagl, John. 2005. Learning to Eat Soup with a Knife: Counterinsurgency Lessons from Malaya and Vietnam. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Naseemullah, Adnan. 2011. “Shades of Sovereignty: Variable State-Building and Insurgency in South and Central Asia.” Working paper, London School of Economics.Google Scholar
Nawaz, Shuja. 2008. Crossed Swords: Pakistan, Its Army, and the Wars Within. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Nexon, Daniel H. 2009. The Struggle for Power in Early Modern Europe: Religious Conflict, Dynastic Empires, and International Change. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
North, Douglass, Wallis, John, and Weingast, Barry. 2009. Violence and Social Orders: A Conceptual Framework for Interpreting Recorded Human History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Obert, Jonathan. 2011. “The Illusion of a Violent Monopoly: Explaining Trajectories of Security Institutionalization.” Ph.D. diss. University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Pape, Robert Anthony. 1996. Bombing to Win: Air Power and Coercion in War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Paris, Roland. 2004. At War's End: Building Peace after Civil Conflict. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Patrick, Stewart. 2011. Weak Links: Fragile States, Global Threats, and International Security. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Petersen, Roger Dale. 2001. Resistance and Rebellion: Lessons from Eastern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Petersen, Roger Dale. 2011. Western Intervention in the Balkans: The Strategic Use of Emotion in Conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pratap, Anita. 2001. Island of Blood: Frontline Reports from Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, and Other South Asian Flashpoints. New Delhi: Viking.Google Scholar
Preble, Christopher A. 2009. The Power Problem: How American Military Dominance Makes Us Less Safe, Less Prosperous, and Less Free. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Rashid, Ahmed. 2008. Descent into Chaos: The United States and the Failure of Nation Building in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Central Asia. New York: Viking.Google Scholar
Rashid, Ahmed. 2010. Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia. 2d ed.New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Regan, Patrick M. 2002. Civil Wars and Foreign Powers. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Rehman, Teresa. 2007. “(Cease)Fire-Fighting.” Tehelka, September 22. http://www.tehelka.com/story_main34.asp?filename=Ne220907CEASE.asp, accessed May 29, 2011.Google Scholar
Reno, William. 1998. Warlord Politics and African States. Boulder, CO: Lynner Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar
Reno, William. 2011. Warfare in Independent Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Roy, Olivier. 1986. Islam and Resistance in Afghanistan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rubin, Barnett R. 1995. The Fragmentation of Afghanistan: State Formation and Collapse in the International System. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Rubin, Barnett R., and Rashid, Ahmed. 2008. From Great Game to Grand Bargain. Foreign Affairs 87(6): 3044.Google Scholar
Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber. 1987. “Presidential Address: State Formation in Asia—Prolegomenon to a Comparative Study.” Journal of Asian Studies 46(4): 731–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sambanis, Nicholas. 2004a. “What Is Civil War? Conceptual and Empirical Complexities of an Operational Definition.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 48(6): 814–58.Google Scholar
Sambanis, Nicholas. 2004b. “Using Case Studies to Expand Economic Models of Civil War.” Perspectives on Politics 2(2): 259–79.Google Scholar
Sartori, Giovanni. 1970. “Concept Misformation in Comparative Politics.” American Political Science Review 64(4): 1033–53.Google Scholar
Schelling, Thomas C. 1966. Arms and Influence. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Scheve, Kenneth, and Stasavage, David. 2010. “The Conscription of Wealth: Mass Warfare and the Demand for Progressive Taxation.” International Organization 64(4): 529–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scott, James. 2009. The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Shafer, D. Michael. 1988. Deadly Paradigms: The Failure of U.S. Counterinsurgency Policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Shastri, Amita. 2002. “Sri Lanka in 2001: Year of Reversals.” Asian Survey 42(1): 177–82.Google Scholar
Sidel, John. 1999. Capital, Coercion, and Crime: Bossism in the Philippines. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Sirnate, Vasundhara. 2011. “Countering Insurgency: Strategies of the Indian State.” Ph.D. diss. University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Sisson, Richard, and Rose, Leo E.. 1990. War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slater, Dan. 2010. Ordering Power: Contentious Politics and Authoritarian Leviathans in Southeast Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Smith, Martin J. 1999. Burma: Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity. 2d ed.London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Staniland, Paul. 2010. “Cities on Fire: Social Mobilization, State Policy, and Urban Insurgency.” Comparative Political Studies 43(12): 1623–49.Google Scholar
Staniland, Paul. 2011. “Beyond the Monopoly of Violence: Militancy and the State in Pakistan.” Presented at 2011 APSA Annual Meeting, Seattle, WA, September 1–4.Google Scholar
Staniland, Paul. Forthcoming. “Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Insurgent Fratricide, Ethnic Defection, and the Rise of Pro-State Paramilitaries.” Journal of Conflict Resolution.Google Scholar
Stasavage, David. 2011. States of Credit: Size, Power, and the Development of European Polities. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Steinberg, David. 2011. Myanmar's Perpetual Dilemma: Ethnicity in a ‘Discipline-Flourishing Democracy.’ Honolulu: East-West Center.Google Scholar
Stepan, Alfred, Linz, Juan, and Yadav, Yogendra. 2011. Crafting State-Nations: India and Other Multinational Democracies. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Tajima, Yuhki. Forthcoming. Order and Violence: How Institutions Explain Communal Violence During Indonesia's Authoritarian Breakdown. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tarrow, Sidney. 2007. “Inside Insurgencies: Politics and Violence in an Age of Civil War.” Perspectives on Politics 5(3): 587600.Google Scholar
Thomson, Janice E. 1994. Mercenaries, Pirates, and Sovereigns: State-Building and Extraterritorial Violence in Early Modern Europe. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Tilly, Charles. 1992. Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990–1992. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
United States Department of the Army. 2007. The U.S. Army/Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Field Manual. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Varshney, Ashutosh. 2002. Ethnic Conflict and Civic Life: Hindus and Muslims in India. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Venkatesh, Sudhir Alladi. 2000. American Project: The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Verkaaik, Oskar. 2004. Migrants and Militants: Fun and Urban Violence in Pakistan. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Vu, Tuong. 2010a. Paths to Development in Asia: South Korea, Vietnam, China, and Indonesia. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Vu, Tuong. 2010b. “Studying the State Through State Formation.” World Politics 62(01): 148175.Google Scholar
Wagner, R. Harrison. 2007. War and the State: The Theory of International Politics. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Walter, Barbara F. 2002. Committing to Peace: The Successful Settlement of Civil Wars. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Wantchekon, Leonard. 2004. “The Paradox of ‘Warlord’ Democracy: A Theoretical Investigation.” American Political Science Review 98(1): 1733.Google Scholar
Wedeen, Lisa. 2008. Peripheral Visions: Publics, Power, and Performance in Yemen. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Weinstein, Jeremy. 2005. “Autonomous Recovery and International Intervention in Comparative Perspective.” Washington, DC: Center for Global Development Working Paper #57, April.Google Scholar
Weinstein, Jeremy. 2007. Inside Rebellion: The Politics of Insurgent Violence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, Steven. 2004. Votes and Violence: Electoral Competition and Ethnic Riots in India. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wood, Elisabeth Jean. 2000. Forging Democracy from Below: Insurgent Transitions in South Africa and El Salvador. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wood, Elisabeth Jean. 2003. Insurgent Collective Action and Civil War in El Salvador. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wood, Elisabeth Jean. 2009. “Armed Groups and Sexual Violence: When Is Wartime Rape Rare?Politics & Society 37(1): 131–61.Google Scholar
Wood, Reed M. 2010. “Rebel Capability and Strategic Violence against Civilians.” Journal of Peace Research 47(5): 601–14.Google Scholar
Zabulwal, Abul Awwal. 2009. “Taliban in Zabul: A Witness' Account.” In Decoding the New Taliban: Insights from the Afghan Field, ed. Giustozzi, Antonio. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Zürcher, Christoph. 2007. The Post-Soviet Wars: Rebellion, Ethnic Conflict, and Nationhood in the Caucasus. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar