Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-t5pn6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-19T07:36:18.165Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Continuity of cannabis use and violent offending over the life course

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 March 2016

T. Schoeler ,
D. Theobald ,
J.-B. Pingault ,
D. P. Farrington ,
W. G. Jennings ,
A. R. Piquero ,
J. W. Coid  and
S. Bhattacharyya
T. Schoeler
Affiliation:
Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
D. Theobald
Affiliation:
Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK Department of Psychology, Kingston UniversityLondon, Kingston upon Thames, UK
J.-B. Pingault
Affiliation:
Division of Psychology and Language Science, University College London, London, UK
D. P. Farrington
Affiliation:
Institute of Criminology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
W. G. Jennings
Affiliation:
College of Behavioral and Community Sciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
A. R. Piquero
Affiliation:
School of Economics, Political and Policy Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA
J. W. Coid
Affiliation:
Forensic Psychiatry Research Unit, Queens Mary University of London, London, UK
S. Bhattacharyya*
Affiliation:
Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
*
*Address for correspondence: S. Bhattacharyya, Ph.D., Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK. (Email: sagnik.2.bhattacharyya@kcl.ac.uk)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Although the association between cannabis use and violence has been reported in the literature, the precise nature of this relationship, especially the directionality of the association, is unclear.

Method

Young males from the Cambridge Study of Delinquent Development (n = 411) were followed up between the ages of 8 and 56 years to prospectively investigate the association between cannabis use and violence. A multi-wave (eight assessments, T1–T8) follow-up design was employed that allowed temporal sequencing of the variables of interest and the analysis of violent outcome measures obtained from two sources: (i) criminal records (violent conviction); and (ii) self-reports. A combination of analytic approaches allowing inferences as to the directionality of associations was employed, including multivariate logistic regression analysis, fixed-effects analysis and cross-lagged modelling.

Results

Multivariable logistic regression revealed that compared with never-users, continued exposure to cannabis (use at age 18, 32 and 48 years) was associated with a higher risk of subsequent violent behaviour, as indexed by convictions [odds ratio (OR) 7.1, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.19–23.59] or self-reports (OR 8.9, 95% CI 2.37–46.21). This effect persisted after controlling for other putative risk factors for violence. In predicting violence, fixed-effects analysis and cross-lagged modelling further indicated that this effect could not be explained by other unobserved time-invariant factors. Furthermore, these analyses uncovered a bi-directional relationship between cannabis use and violence.

Conclusions

Together, these results provide strong indication that cannabis use predicts subsequent violent offending, suggesting a possible causal effect, and provide empirical evidence that may have implications for public policy.

Keywords

CannabisepidemiologyΔ-9-tetrahydrocannabinolviolence
Type
Original Articles
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 46 , Issue 8 , June 2016 , pp. 1663 - 1677
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Bennett, T, Holloway, K, Farrington, D (2008). The statistical association between drug misuse and crime: a meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior 13, 107–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bhattacharyya, S, Atakan, Z, Martin-Santos, R, Crippa, JA, Kambeitz, J, Malhi, S, Giampietro, V, Williams, S, Brammer, M, Rubia, K, Collier, DA, McGuire, PK (2015). Impairment of inhibitory control processing related to acute psychotomimetic effects of cannabis. European Neuropsychopharmacology 25, 26–37.Google Scholar
Bhattacharyya, S, Atakan, Z, Martin-Santos, R, Crippa, JA, Kambeitz, J, Prata, D, Williams, S, Brammer, M, Collier, DA, McGuire, PK (2012 a). Preliminary report of biological basis of sensitivity to the effects of cannabis on psychosis: AKT1 and DAT1 genotype modulates the effects of δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on midbrain and striatal function. Molecular Psychiatry 17, 1152–1155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bhattacharyya, S, Crippa, JA, Allen, P, Martin-Santos, R, Borgwardt, S, Fusar-Poli, P, Rubia, K, Kambeitz, J, O'Carroll, C, Seal, ML, Giampietro, V, Brammer, M, Zuardi, AW, Atakan, Z, McGuire, PK (2012 b). Induction of psychosis by Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol reflects modulation of prefrontal and striatal function during attentional salience processing. Archives of General Psychiatry 69, 27–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bhattacharyya, S, Fusar-Poli, P, Borgwardt, S, Martin-Santos, R, Nosarti, C, O'Carroll, C, Allen, P, Seal, ML, Fletcher, PC, Crippa, JA, Giampietro, V, Mechelli, A, Atakan, Z, McGuire, P (2009). Modulation of mediotemporal and ventrostriatal function in humans by Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol: a neural basis for the effects of Cannabis sativa on learning and psychosis. Archives of General Psychiatry 66, 442–451.Google Scholar
Bhattacharyya, S, Iyegbe, C, Atakan, Z, Martin-Santos, R, Crippa, JA, Xu, X, Williams, S, Brammer, M, Rubia, K, Prata, D, Collier, DA, McGuire, PK (2014). Protein kinase B (AKT1) genotype mediates sensitivity to cannabis-induced impairments in psychomotor control. Psychological Medicine 44, 3315–3328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blumstein, A, Cohen, J, Roth, JA, Visher, CA (1986). Criminal Careers and “Career Criminals”. National Academies Press: Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Brennan, PA, Mednick, SA, Hodgins, S (2000). Major mental disorders and criminal violence in a Danish birth cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 494–500.Google Scholar
Brook, JS, Brook, DW, Rosen, Z, Rabbitt, CR (2003). Earlier marijuana use and later problem behavior in Colombian youths. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 42, 485–492.Google Scholar
Brook, JS, Lee, JY, Finch, SJ, Brook, DW (2014). Developmental trajectories of marijuana use from adolescence to adulthood: relationship with using weapons including guns. Addictive Behaviors 40, 229–237.Google ScholarPubMed
Brook, JS, Lee, JY, Finch, SJ, Brown, EN, Brook, DW (2013). Long-term consequences of membership in trajectory groups of delinquent behavior in an urban sample: violence, drug use, interpersonal, and neighborhood attributes. Aggressive Behavior 39, 440–452.Google Scholar
Caspi, A, Moffitt, TE, Newman, DL, Silva, PA (1996). Behavioral observations at age 3 years predict adult psychiatric disorders: longitudinal evidence from a birth cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry 53, 1033–1039.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chabrol, H, Saint-Martin, C (2009). Cannabis use and delinquent behaviors in high-school students. Addictive Behaviors 34, 187–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crispo, A, Brennan, P, Jöckel, K, Schaffrath-Rosario, A, Wichmann, H, Nyberg, F, Simonato, L, Merletti, F, Forastiere, F, Boffetta, P (2004). The cumulative risk of lung cancer among current, ex- and never-smokers in European men. British Journal of Cancer 91, 1280–1286.Google Scholar
Farrington, DP (1991). Antisocial personality from childhood to adulthood. Psychologist 4, 389–394.Google Scholar
Farrington, DP (1995). The Twelfth Jack Tizard Memorial Lecture. The development of offending and antisocial behaviour from childhood: key findings from the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 36, 929–964.Google Scholar
Farrington, DP (2000). Psychosocial predictors of adult antisocial personality and adult convictions. Behavioral Sciences and the Law 18, 605–622.Google Scholar
Farrington, DP (2010). Commentary on Pedersen and Skardhamar (2010): does cannabis use predict non-drug offending? Addiction 105, 119–120.Google Scholar
Fergusson, DM, Boden, JM, Horwood, LJ (2008). The developmental antecedents of illicit drug use: evidence from a 25-year longitudinal study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 96, 165–177.Google Scholar
Fergusson, DM, Horwood, LJ, Swain-Campbell, N (2002). Cannabis use and psychosocial adjustment in adolescence and young adulthood. Addiction 97, 1123–1135.Google Scholar
First, MB, Spitzer, RL, Gibbon, M, Williams, JB (1998). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders: Patient Edition (February 1996 Final), SCID-I/P. Biometrics Research Department, New York State Psychiatric Institute: New York.Google Scholar
Friedman, AS, Kramer, S, Kreisher, C, Granick, S (1996). The relationships of substance abuse to illegal and violent behavior, in a community sample of young adult African American men and women (gender differences). Journal of Substance Abuse 8, 379–402.Google Scholar
Hill, AB (1965). The environment and disease: association or causation? Journal of the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 58, 295–300.Google Scholar
Jennings, WG, Reingle, JM, Staras, SA, Maldonado-Molina, MM (2012). Substance use as a risk factor for intimate partner violence overlap: generational differences among Hispanic young adults. International Criminal Justice Review 22, 139–152.Google Scholar
Johnson, BD, Wish, ED, Schmeidler, J, Huizinga, D (1991). Concentration of delinquent offending: serious drug involvement and high delinquency rates. Journal of Drug Issues 21, 205–291.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lauritsen, JL (1998). The age-crime debate: assessing the limits of longitudinal self-report data. Social Forces 77, 127–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindsay, AC, Foale, RA, Warren, O, Henry, JA (2005). Cannabis as a precipitant of cardiovascular emergencies. International Journal of Cardiology 104, 230–232.Google Scholar
McNaughton Reyes, HL, Foshee, VA, Bauer, DJ, Ennett, ST (2014). Proximal and time-varying effects of cigarette, alcohol, marijuana and other hard drug use on adolescent dating aggression. Journal of Adolescence 37, 281–289.Google Scholar
Moffitt, TE, Caspi, A, Harrington, H, Milne, BJ (2002). Males on the life-course-persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways: follow-up at age 26 years. Development and Psychopathology 14, 179–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Monshouwer, K, Van Dorsselaer, S, Verdurmen, J, Bogt, TT, De Graaf, R, Vollebergh, W (2006). Cannabis use and mental health in secondary school children Findings from a Dutch survey. British Journal of Psychiatry 188, 148–153.Google Scholar
Murray, J, Farrington, DP, Eisner, MP (2009). Drawing conclusions about causes from systematic reviews of risk factors: the Cambridge Quality Checklists. Journal of Experimental Criminology 5, 1–23.Google Scholar
Nabors, EL (2010). Drug use and intimate partner violence among college students: an in-depth exploration. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 25, 1043–1063.Google Scholar
Norström, T, Rossow, I (2014). Cannabis use and violence: is there a link? Scandinavian Journal of Public Health 42, 358–363.Google Scholar
Patton, GC, Coffey, C, Lynskey, MT, Reid, S, Hemphill, S, Carlin, JB, Hall, W (2007). Trajectories of adolescent alcohol and cannabis use into young adulthood. Addiction 102, 607–615.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pedersen, W, Skardhamar, T (2010). Cannabis and crime: findings from a longitudinal study. Addiction 105, 109–118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pepper, JV, Petrie, CV (2003). Measurement Problems in Criminal Justice Research: Workshop Summary. The National Academies Press: Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Peters, EN, Schwartz, RP, Wang, S, O'Grady, KE, Blanco, C (2014). Psychiatric, psychosocial, and physical health correlates of co-occurring cannabis use disorders and nicotine dependence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 134, 228–234.Google Scholar
Pingault, J-B, Côté, SM, Galéra, C, Genolini, C, Falissard, B, Vitaro, F, Tremblay, RE (2013). Childhood trajectories of inattention, hyperactivity and oppositional behaviors and prediction of substance abuse/dependence: a 15-year longitudinal population-based study. Molecular Psychiatry 18, 806–812.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piquero, AR, Schubert, CA, Brame, R (2014). Comparing official and self-report records of offending across gender and race/ethnicity in a longitudinal study of serious youthful offenders. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 51, 526–556.Google Scholar
R Core Team (2015). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing (https://cran.r-project.org/doc/manuals/fullrefman.pdf). Accessed January 2016.Google Scholar
Reingle, JM, Staras, SA, Jennings, WG, Branchini, J, Maldonado-Molina, MM (2012). The relationship between marijuana use and intimate partner violence in a nationally representative longitudinal sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 27, 1562–1578.Google Scholar
Resnick, MD, Ireland, M, Borowsky, I (2004). Youth violence perpetration: what protects? What predicts? Findings from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Journal of Adolescent Health 35, 424. e1–e10.Google Scholar
Schoeler, T, Bhattacharyya, S (2013). The effect of cannabis use on memory function: an update. Journal of Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation 4, 11–27.Google ScholarPubMed
Schoeler, T, Kambeitz, J, Behlke, I, Murray, R, Bhattacharyya, S (2016 a). The effects of cannabis on memory function in users with and without a psychotic disorder: findings from a combined meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine 46, 177–188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schoeler, T, Monk, A, Sami, MB, Klamerus, E, Foglia, E, Brown, R, Camuri, G, Altamura, AC, Murray, R, Bhattacharyya, S (2016 b). Continued versus discontinued cannabis use in patients with psychosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry. Published online 14 01 2016 . doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(15)00363-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scholes-Balog, KE, Hemphill, SA, Kremer, P, Toumbourou, JW (2013). A longitudinal study of the reciprocal effects of alcohol use and interpersonal violence among Australian young people. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 42, 1811–1823.Google Scholar
Schulenberg, JE, Merline, AC, Johnston, LD, O'Malley, PM, Bachman, JG, Laetz, VB (2005). Trajectories of marijuana use during the transition to adulthood: the big picture based on national panel data. Journal of Drug Issues 35, 255–280.Google Scholar
Theobald, D, Farrington, DP (2012). Child and adolescent predictors of male intimate partner violence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 53, 1242–1249.Google Scholar
von Sydow, K, Lieb, R, Pfister, H, Höfler, M, Wittchen, H-U (2002). What predicts incident use of cannabis and progression to abuse and dependence? A 4-year prospective examination of risk factors in a community sample of adolescents and young adults. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 68, 49–64.Google Scholar
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2010). World Drug Report 2010. United Nations: New York (https://www.unodc.org/documents/wdr/WDR_2010/World_Drug_Report_2010_lo-res.pdf). Accessed January 2016.Google Scholar
Wei, EH, Loeber, R, White, HR (2004). Teasing apart the developmental associations between alcohol and marijuana use and violence. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 20, 166–183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
West, DJ, Farrington, DP (1973). Who Becomes Delinquent? Second Report of the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development. Heinemann: London.Google Scholar
White, HR, Hansell, S (1998). Acute and long-term effects of drug use on aggression from adolescence into adulthood. Journal of Drug Issues 28, 837–858.Google Scholar
Windle, M, Wiesner, M (2004). Trajectories of marijuana use from adolescence to young adulthood: predictors and outcomes. Development and Psychopathology 16, 1007–1027.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xue, Y, Zimmerman, MA, Cunningham, R (2009). Relationship between alcohol use and violent behavior among urban African American youths from adolescence to emerging adulthood: a longitudinal study. American Journal of Public Health 99, 2041–2048.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Schoeler supplementary material

Schoeler supplementary material 1

Download Schoeler supplementary material(File)
File 378.9 KB