Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-cfpbc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-23T16:10:23.367Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Are the health benefits of fish oils limited by products of oxidation?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 December 2007

Rufus Turner ,
Carlene H McLean  and
Karen M Silvers
Rufus Turner
Affiliation:
New Zealand Institute of Crop & Food Research, Private Bag 4704, Christchurch, New Zealand
Carlene H McLean
Affiliation:
New Zealand Institute of Crop & Food Research, Private Bag 4704, Christchurch, New Zealand
Karen M Silvers*
Affiliation:
New Zealand Institute of Crop & Food Research, Private Bag 4704, Christchurch, New Zealand
*
*Corresponding author: Dr Karen M. Silvers, P.O. Box 41043, Christchurch, New Zealand, fax +64 3 325 2074, email karen.silvers@xtra.co.nz
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Human clinical trials have shown that fish oils reduce the risk of a variety of disorders including CVD. Despite this, results have been inconsistent. Fish oils are easily oxidised and some fish oils contain higher than recommended levels of oxidised products, but their effects have not been investigated. Recent evidence indicates that dietary oxidised fats can contribute to the development of atherosclerosis and thrombosis. This review summarises findings from cellular, animal and human trials that have examined the effects of oxidised lipids and their potential to affect health outcomes, and proposes that oxidised products in fish oils may attenuate their beneficial effects. More research is required to determine the magnitude of negative effects of fish oil on health outcomes in clinical trials.

Keywords

Fish oilsOxidised lipidsHydroperoxidesHuman clinical trialsAnimalsCells
Type
Research Article
Information
Nutrition Research Reviews , Volume 19 , Issue 1 , June 2006 , pp. 53 - 62
Copyright
Copyright © The Authors 2006

References

Adams, PB, Lawson, S, Sanigorski, A & Sinclair, AJ (1996) Arachidonic acid to eicosapentaenoic acid ratio in blood correlates positively with clinical symptoms of depression. Lipids 31, S157–S161.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aidos, I, van der Padt, A, Boom, RM & Luten, JB (2001) Upgrading of maatjes herring byproducts: production of crude fish oil. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 49, 3697–3704.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Oil Chemists Society (1998) American Oil Chemists Society Official Methods and Recommended Practices, Pasa-anisdine Value, Method CD 18–19. Champaign, IL: AOCS Press.Google Scholar
Association of Official Analytical, Chemists (1990) Peroxide Value Method 965.33, 15th ed. Arlington, VA: Association of Official Analytical Chemists.Google Scholar
Auboeuf, D, Rieusset, J, Fajas, L, Vallier, P, Frering, V, Riou, JP, Staels, P, Auwerx, J, Laville, M & Vidal, H (1997) Tissue distribution and quantification of the expression of mRNAs of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors and liver X receptor-alpha in humans – no alteration in adipose tissue of obese and NIDDM patients. Diabetes 46, 1319–1327.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baik, MY, Suhendro, EL, Nawar, WW, McClements, DJ, Decker, EA & Chinachoti, P (2004) Effects of antioxidants and humidity on the oxidative stability of microencapsulated fish oil. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society 81, 355–360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barlow, S (2000) Fishmeal and fish oil: sustainable feed ingredients for aquafeeds. Global Aquacultulture Advocate 4, 85–88.Google Scholar
Basta, G, Schmidt, AM & De Caterina, R (2004) Advanced glycation end products and vascular inflammation: implications for accelerated atherosclerosis in diabetes. Cardiovascular Research 63, 582–592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berliner, JA & Heinecke, JW (1996) The role of oxidized lipoproteins in atherogenesis. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 20, 707–727.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bimbo, AP (1987) The emerging marine oil industry. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society 64, 706–715.Google Scholar
Brandsch, C & Eder, K (2004) Effects of peroxidation products in thermoxidised dietary oil in female rats during rearing, pregnancy and lactation on their reproductive performance and the antioxidative status of their offspring. British Journal of Nutrition 92, 267–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brandsch, C & Nass, N, Eder, K (2004) A thermally oxidized dietary oil does not lower the activities of lipogenic enzymes in mammary glands of lactating rats but reduces the milk triglyceride concentration. Journal of Nutrition 134, 631–636.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bucala, R, Makita, Z, Vega, G, Grundy, S, Koschinsky, T, Cerami, A & Vlassara, H (1994) Modification of low-density lipoprotein by advanced glycation end-products contributes to the dyslipidemia of diabetes and renal-insufficiency. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U S A 91, 9441–9445.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bucher, HC, Hengstler, P, Schindler, C & Meier, G (2002) n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids in coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Medicine 112, 298–304.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buckley, R, Shewring, B, Turner, R, Yaqoob, P & Minihane, AM (2004) Circulating triacylglycerol and apoE levels in response to EPA and docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in adult human subjects. British Journal of Nutrition 92, 477–483.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burr, ML, Gilbert, JF, Holliday, RM, Elwood, PC, Fehily, AM, Rogers, S, Sweetnam, PM & Deadman, NM (1989) Effects of changes in fat, fish, and fiber intakes on death and myocardial reinfarction – Diet and Reinfarction Trial (Dart). Lancet ii, 757–761.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calder, PC (2004 a) n-3 Fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: evidence explained and mechanisms explored. Clinical Science 107, 1–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calder, PC (2004 b) n-3 Fatty acids, inflammation, and immunity – relevance to postsurgical and critically ill patients. Lipids 39, 1147–1161.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chao, PM, Hsu, SC, Lin, FJ, Li, YJ & Huang, CJ (2004) The up-regulation of hepatic acyl-CoA oxidase and cytochrome P-450 4A1 mRNA expression by dietary oxidized frying oil is comparable between male and female rats. Lipids 39, 233–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chisolm, GM & Steinberg, D (2000) The oxidative modification hypothesis of atherogenesis: an overview. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 28, 1815–1826.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cleland, LG, James, MJ & Proudman, SM (2003) The role of fish oils in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Drugs 63, 845–853.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, GM (1997) Caspases: the executioners of apoptosis. Biochemical Journal 326, 1–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, MJ, Gordon, JL, Gearing, AJH, Pigott, R, Woolf, N, Katz, D & Kyriakopoulos, A (1993) The expression of the adhesion molecules Icam-1, Vcam-1, Pecam, and E-selectin in human atherosclerosis. Journal of Pathology 171, 223–229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Caterina, R, Madonna, R, Zucchi, R & La Rovere, MT (2003) Antiarrhythmic effects of omega-3 fatty acids: from epidemiology to bedside. American Heart Journal 146, 420–430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durrington, PN, Mackness, B & Mackness, MI (2001) Paraoxonase and atherosclerosis. Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology 21, 473–480.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dwarakanath, RS, Sahar, S, Reddy, MA, Castanotto, D, Rossi, JJ & Natarajan, R (2004) Regulation of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 by the oxidized lipid, 13-hydroperoxyoctadecadienoic acid, in vascular smooth muscle cells via nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kappa B). Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology 36, 585–595.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eder, K, Keller, U, Hirche, F & Brandsch, C (2003) Thermally oxidized dietary fats increase the susceptibility of rat LDL to lipid peroxidation but not their uptake by macrophages. Journal of Nutrition 133, 2830–2837.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eder, K & Stangl, GI (2000) Plasma thyroxine and cholesterol concentrations of miniature pigs are influenced by thermally oxidized dietary lipids. Journal of Nutrition 130, 116–121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Esterbauer, H, Wag, G & Puhl, H (1993) Lipid peroxidation and its role in atherosclerosis. British Medical Bulletin 49, 566–576.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fleming, I (2004) Cytochrome P450 enzymes in the vasculature. Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology 36, 728–729.Google Scholar
Frankel, EN (1991) Recent advances in lipid oxidation. Journal of Science, Food and Agriculture 54, 489–511.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frankel, EN (2005) Lipid Oxidation 2nd ed. Bridgwater, UK: The Oily Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fritsche, KL & Johnston, PV (1987) Rapid autoxidation of fish oil in diets without added antioxidants. Journal of Nutrition 118, 425–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fuentes-Prior, P & Salvesen, GS (2004) The protein structures that shape caspase activity, specificity, activation and inhibition. Biochemical Journal 384, 201–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garrido-Polonio, C, Garcia-Linares, MC, Garcia-Arias, MT, Lopez-Varela, S, Garcia-Fernandez, MC, Terpstra, AH & Sanchez-Muniz, FJ (2004) Thermally oxidised sunflower-seed oil increases liver and serum peroxidation and modifies lipoprotein composition in rats. British Journal of Nutrition 92, 257–265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glass, CK & Witztum, JL (2001) Atherosclerosis: the road ahead. Cell 104, 503–516.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Golino, P (2002) The inhibitors of the tissue factor: factor VII pathway. Thrombosis Research 106, V257–V265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunstone, F (1999) Fatty Acid and Lipid Chemistry. Glasgow: Blackie Academic and Professional.Google Scholar
Hamilton, RJ, Kalu, C, McNeill, GP, Padley, FB & Pierce, JH (1998) Effects of tocopherols, ascorbyl palmitate, and lecithin on autoxidation of fish oil. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society 75, 813–822.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, WS (1997) n-3 Fatty acids and serum lipoproteins: human studies. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 65, S1645–S1654.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harrison, N & Abhyankar, B (2005) The mechanism of action of omega-3 fatty acids in secondary prevention of postmyocardial infarction. Current Medical Research and Opinion 21, 95–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helland, IB, Smith, L, Saarem, K, Saugstad, OD & Drevon, CA (2003) Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments children's IQ at 4 years of age. Pediatrics 111, 39–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heude, B, Ducimetiere, P & Berr, C (2003) Cognitive decline and fatty acid composition of erythrocyte membranes–the EVA Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77, 803–808.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hibbeln, JR (1998) Fish consumption and major depression. Lancet 351, 1213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holden, PR & Tugwood, JD (1999) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha: role in rodent liver cancer and species differences. Journal of Molecular Endocrinology 22, 1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hu, FB & Willett, WC (2002) Optimal diets for prevention of coronary heart disease. Journal of the American Medical Association 288, 2569–2578.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jorgensen, MH, Lauritzen, L & Fleischer-Michaelsen, K (1999) The role of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in neonatal nutrition. Acta Paediatrica 88, 916–917.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karpe, F, Boquist, S, Tang, R, Bond, GM, de Faire, U & Hamsten, A (2001) Remnant lipoproteins are related to intima-media thickness of the carotid artery independently of LDL cholesterol and plasma triglycerides. Journal of Lipid Research 42, 17–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaul, U, Sanghvi, S, Bahl, VK, Dev, V & Wasir, HS (1992) Fish oil supplements for prevention of restenosis after coronary angioplasty. International Journal of Cardiology 35, 87–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keller, U, Brandsch, C & Eder, K (2004) The effect of dietary oxidized fats on the antioxidant status of erythrocytes and their susceptibility to haemolysis in rats and guinea pigs. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 88, 59–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kew, S, Mesa, MD, Tricon, S, Buckley, R, Minihane, AM & Yaqoob, P (2004) Effects of oils rich in eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids on immune cell composition and function in healthy humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 79, 674–681.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khan, BV, Parthasarathy, SS, Alexander, RW & Medford, RM (1995) Modified low-density lipoprotein and its constituents augment cytokine activated vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 gene expression in human vascular endothelial cells. Journal of Clinical Investigation 95, 1262–1270.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khan, F, Elherik, K, Bolton-Smith, C, Barr, R, Hill, A, Murrie, I & Belch, JJF (2003) The effects of dietary fatty acid supplementation on endothelial function and vascular tone in healthy subjects. Cardiovascular Research 59, 955–962.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khan-Merchant, N, Penumetcha, M, Meilhac, O & Parthasarathy, S (2002) Oxidized fatty acids promote atherosclerosis only in the presence of dietary cholesterol in low-density lipoprotein receptor knockout mice. Journal of Nutrition 132, 3256–3262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khayat, A & Schwall, D (1983) Lipid oxidation in seafood. Food Technology 37, 130–140.Google Scholar
Kris-Etherton, PM, Harris, WS & Appel, LJ; Nutrition Committee (2003) Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology 23, E20–E31.Google ScholarPubMed
Lee, KW & Lip, GYH (2003) The role of omega-3 fatty acids in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease. QJM: an International Journal of Medicine 96, 465–480.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lefevre, M, Kris-Etherton, PM, Zhao, G & Tracy, RP (2004) Dietary fatty acids, hemostasis, and cardiovascular disease risk. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 104, 410–419.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leigh-Firbank, EC, Minihane, AM, Leake, DS, Wright, JW, Murphy, MC, Griffin, BA & Williams, CM (2002) Eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid from fish oils: differential associations with lipid responses. British Journal of Nutrition 87, 435–445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, HM, Cybulsky, MI, Gimbrone, MA & Libby, P (1993) Inducible expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 by vascular smooth muscle cells in vitro and within rabbit atheroma. American Journal of Pathology 143, 1551–1559.Google ScholarPubMed
Mackness, B, Durrington, P, McElduff, P, Yarnell, J, Azam, N, Watt, M & Mackness, M (2003) Low paraoxonase activity predicts coronary events in the Caerphilly prospective study. Circulation 107, 2775–2779.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mackness, MI, Arrol, S, Abbott, C & Durrington, PN (1993) Protection of low-density lipoprotein against oxidative modification by high-density lipoprotein associated paraoxonase. Atherosclerosis 104, 129–135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marckmann, P & Gronbaek, M (1999) Fish consumption and coronary heart disease mortality. A systematic review of prospective cohort studies. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 53, 585–590.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meade, TW, Brozovic, M, Chakrabarti, RR, Haines, AP, Imeson, JD, Mellows, S, Miller, GJ, North, WRS, Stirling, Y & Thompson, SG (1986) Hemostatic function and ischemic heart disease – principal results of the Northwick Park heart study. Lancet ii, 533–537.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meilhac, O, Zhou, M, Santanam, N & Parthasarathy, S (2000) Lipid peroxides induce expression of catalase in cultured vascular cells. Journal of Lipid Research 41, 1205–1213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, GJ, Cooke, CJ, Nanjee, MN, Howarth, DJ, Cooper, JA, Stepanova, IP, Morrissey, JH & Miller, NE (2002) Factor VII activation, apolipoprotein A-I and reverse cholesterol transport: possible relevance for postprandial lipaemia. Thrombosis and Haemostasis 87, 477–482.Google ScholarPubMed
Min, DB & Boff, JM (2002) Chemistry and reaction of singlet oxygen in foods. Comparative Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 1, 58–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Minihane, AM, Khan, S, Leigh-Firbank, EC, Talmud, P, Wright, JW, Murphy, MC, Griffin, BA & Williams, CM (2000) ApoE polymorphism and fish oil supplementation in subjects with an atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype. Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology 20, 1990–1997.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muller, C, Friedrichs, R, Wingler, K & Brigelius-Flohe, R (2002) Perturbation of lipid metabolism by linoleic acid hydroperoxide in CaCo-2 cells. Biological Chemistry 383, 637–648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Naruszewicz, M, Wozny, E, Mirkiewicz, E, Nowicka, G & Szostak, WB (1987) The effect of thermally oxidized soya bean oil on metabolism of chylomicrons – increased uptake and degradation of oxidized chylomicrons in cultured mouse macrophages. Atherosclerosis 66, 45–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Natarajan, R & Nadler, JL (2004) Lipid inflammatory mediators in diabetic vascular disease. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology 24, 1542–1548.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Natarajan, R, Reddy, MA, Malik, KU, Fatima, S & Khan, BV (2001) Signaling mechanisms of nuclear factor-kappa B-mediated activation of inflammatory genes by 13-hydroperoxyoctadecadienoic acid in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells. Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology 21, 1408–1413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Okuda, N, Ueshima, H, Okayama, A, Saitoh, S, Nakagawa, H, Rodriguez, BL, Sakata, K, Choudhury, SR, Curb, JD & Stamler, J (2005) Relation of long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake to serum high density lipoprotein cholesterol among Japanese men in Japan and Japanese-American men in Hawaii: the INTERLIPID study. Atherosclerosis 178, 371–379.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parks, EJ, German, JB, Davis, PA, Frankel, EN, Kappagoda, CT, Rutledge, JC, Hyson, DA & Schneeman, BO (1998) Reduced oxidative susceptibility of LDL from patients participating in an intensive atherosclerosis treatment program. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 68, 778–785.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Passi, S, Ricci, R, Cataudella, S, Ferrante, I, De Simone, F & Rastrelli, L (2004) Fatty acid pattern, oxidation product development, and antioxidant loss in muscle tissue of rainbow trout and Dicentrarchus labrax during growth. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 52, 2587–2592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patsch, JR, Miesenbock, G, Hopferwieser, T, Muhlberger, V, Knapp, E, Dunn, JK, Gotto, AM & Patsch, W (1992) Relation of triglyceride metabolism and coronary artery disease–studies in the postprandial state. Arteriosclerosis and Thrombosis 12, 1336–1345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Penumetcha, M, Khan-Merchant, N & Parthasarathy, S (2002) Enhanced solubilization and intestinal absorption of cholesterol by oxidized linoleic acid. Journal of Lipid Research 43, 895–903.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pokorny, J, Yanishlieva, N & Gordon, M (2001) Antioxidants in Food 1st ed. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing Limited.Google Scholar
Rao, GN, Alexander, RW & Runge, MS (1995) Linoleic acid and its metabolites, hydroperoxyoctadecadienoic acids, stimulate C-Fos, C-Jun, and C-Myc messenger RNA expression, mitogen activated protein kinase activation, and growth in rat aortic smooth muscle cells. Journal of Clinical Investigation 96, 842–847.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richards, MP & Li, R (2004) Effects of released iron, lipid peroxides, and ascorbate in trout hemoglobin-mediated lipid oxidation of washed cod muscle. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 52, 4323–4329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rivellese, AA, Maffettone, A, Vessby, B, Uusitupa, M, Hermansen, K, Berglund, L, Louheranta, A, Meyer, BJ & Riccardi, G (2003) Effects of dietary saturated, monounsaturated and n-3 fatty acids on fasting lipoproteins, LDL size and post-prandial lipid metabolism in healthy subjects. Atherosclerosis 167, 149–158.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roche, HM & Gibney, MJ (2000) The impact of postprandial lipemia in accelerating atherothrombosis. Journal of Cardiovascular Risk 7, 317–324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roche, HM, Zampelas, A, Knapper, JME, Webb, D, Brooks, C, Jackson, KG, Wright, JW, Gould, BJ, Kafatos, A, Gibney, MJ & Williams, CM (1998) Effect of long-term olive oil dietary intervention on postprandial triacylglycerol and factor VII metabolism. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 68, 552–560.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, R (1993) The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis–a perspective for the 1990s. Nature 362, 801–809.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, R (1999) Mechanisms of disease – atherosclerosis – an inflammatory disease. New England Journal of Medicine 340, 115–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sader, MA & Celermajer, DS (2002) Endothelial function, vascular reactivity and gender differences in the cardiovascular system. Cardiovascular Research 53, 597–604.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanders, TAB, de Grassi, T, Miller, GJ, Morrissey, JH (2000) Influence of fatty acid chain length and cis/trans isomerization on postprandial lipemia and factor VII in healthy subjects (postprandial lipids and factor VII). Atherosclerosis 149, 413–420.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Santanam, N, Auge, N, Zhou, M, Keshava, C & Parthasarathy, S (1999) Overexpression of human catalase gene decreases oxidized lipid-induced cytotoxicity in vascular smooth muscle cells. Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology 19, 1912–1917.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmidt, EB, Arnesen, H, de Caterina, R, Rasmussen, LH, Kristensen, SD (2005 a) Marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and coronary heart disease – part I. Background, epidemiology, animal data, effects on risk factors and safety. Thrombosis Research 115, 163–170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmidt, EB, Arnesen, H, Christensen, JH, Rasmussen, LH, Kristensen, SD & De Caterina, R (2005 b) Marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and coronary heart disease – part II: Clinical trials and recommendations. Thrombosis Research 115, 257–262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, CJ, Valente, AJ, Sprague, EA, Kelley, JL & Nerem, RM (1991) The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis–an overview. Clinical Cardiology 14, 1–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sethi, S (2002) Inhibition of leukocyte-endothelial interactions by oxidized omega-3 fatty acids: a novel mechanism for the anti-inflammatory effects of omega-3 fatty acids in fish oil. Redox Report 7, 369–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silvers, KM & Scott, KM (2002) Fish consumption and self-reported physical and mental health status. Public Health Nutrition 5, 427–431.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Staprans, I, Pan, XM, Miller, M & Rapp, JH (1993 a) Effect of dietary lipid peroxides on metabolism of serum chylomicrons in rats. American Journal of Physiology 264, G561–G568.Google ScholarPubMed
Staprans, I, Pan, XM, Rapp, JH & Feingold, KR (2003) Oxidised cholesterol in the diet is a source of oxidised lipoproteins in human serum. Journal of Lipid Research 44, 705–715.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Staprans, I, Pan, XM, Rapp, JHGrunfeld, C & Feingold, KR (2000) Oxidized cholesterol in the diet accelerates the development of atherosclerosis in LDL receptor- and apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology 20, 708–714.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Staprans, I, Rapp, JH, Pan, XM & Feingold, KR (1993 b) The effect of oxidized lipids in the diet on serum lipoprotein peroxides in control and diabetic rats. Journal of Clinical Investigation 92, 638–643.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Staprans, I, Rapp, JH, Pan, XM, Hardman, DA & Feingold, KR (1996) Oxidized lipids in the diet accelerate the development of fatty streaks in cholesterol-fed rabbits. Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology 16, 533–538.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Staprans, I, Rapp, JH, Pan, XM, Kim, KY & Feingold, KR (1994) Oxidized lipids in the diet are a source of oxidized lipid in chylomicrons of human serum. Arteriosclerosis and Thrombosis 14, 1900–1905.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steinberg, D (1997) A critical look at the evidence for the oxidation of LDL in atherogenesis. Atherosclerosis 131, S5–S7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sulzle, A, Hirche, F & Eder, K (2004) Thermally oxidized dietary fat upregulates the expression of target genes of PPARa in rat liver. Journal of Nutrition 134, 1375–1383.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sutherland, WHF, Walker, RJ, de Jong, SA, van Rij, AM, Phillips, V & Walker, HL (1999) Reduced postprandial serum paraoxonase activity after a meal rich in used cooking fat. Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology 19, 1340–1347.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Theobald, HE, Chowienczyk, PJ, Whittall, R, Humphries, SE & Sanders, TAB (2004) LDL cholesterol-raising effect of low-dose docosahexaenoic acid in middle-aged men and women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 79, 558–563.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thum, T & Borlak, J (2004) Mechanistic role of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases in oxidized low-density lipoprotein-induced vascular injury – therapy through LOX-1 receptor antagonism?. Circulation Research 94, E1–E13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Undeland, I, Ekstrand, B & Lingnert, H (1998) Lipid oxidation in herring (Clupea harengus) light muscle, dark muscle, and skin, stored separately or as intact fillets. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society 75, 581–590.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valagussa, F, Franzosi, MG, Geraci, E, Mininni, N, Nicolosi, GL, Santini, M, Tavazzi, L, Vecchio, C, Marchioli, R, Bomba, E, et al. (1999) Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Lancet 354, 447–455.Google Scholar
Venugopal, V & Shahidi, F (1998) Traditional methods to process underutilized fish species for human consumption. Food Reviews International 14, 35–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallace, AJ, Sutherland, WHF, Mann, JI & Williams, SM (2001) The effect of meals rich in thermally stressed olive and safflower oils on postprandial serum paraoxonase activity in patients with diabetes. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 55, 951–958.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, TG, Gotoh, Y, Jennings, MH, Rhoads, CA & Aw, TY (2000) Lipid hydroperoxide-induced apoptosis in human colonic CaCo-2 cells is associated with an early loss of cellular redox balance. FASEB Journal 14, 1567–1576.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weintraub, MS, Grosskopf, I, Rassin, T, Miller, H, Charach, G, Rotmensch, HH, Liron, M, Rubinstein, A & Iaina, A (1996) Clearance of chylomicron remnants in normolipidaemic patients with coronary artery disease: case control study over three years. British Medical Journal 312, 935–939.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilkinson, P, Leach, C, Ah-Sing, EE, Hussain, N, Miller, GJ, Millward, DJ & Griffin, BA (2005) Influence of alpha-linolenic acid and fish-oil on markers of cardiovascular risk in subjects with an atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype. Atherosclerosis 181, 115–124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, MJA, Sutherland, WHF, McCormick, MP, de Jong, SA, Walker, RJ, Wilkins, GT (1999) Impaired endothelial function following a meal rich in used cooking fat. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 33, 1050–1055.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, R, Lyall, K, Millar, EM, Smyth, L, Pearson, C & Riemersma, RA (2003) Do oxidized fatty acids activate coagulation factor VII during post-prandial lipemia in women? Thrombosis and Haemostasis 89, 654–659.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Witztum, JL & Steinberg, D (1991) Role of oxidized low-density lipoprotein in atherogenesis. Journal of Clinical Investigation 88, 1785–1792.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zangar, RC, Davydov, DR & Verma, S (2004) Mechanisms that regulate production of reactive oxygen species by cytochrome P450. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 199, 316–331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed