Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-hgkh8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-27T17:36:06.934Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Emotional disorders: Cluster 4 of the proposed meta-structure for DSM-V and ICD-11

Paper 5 of 7 of the thematic section: ‘A proposal for a meta-structure for DSM-V and ICD-11’

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 October 2009

D. P. Goldberg*
Affiliation:
Institute of Psychiatry, King's College, London, UK
R. F. Krueger
Affiliation:
Departments of Psychology and Psychiatry, Washington University in St Louis, USA
G. Andrews
Affiliation:
School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
M. J. Hobbs
Affiliation:
School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
*
*Address for correspondence: Professor Sir David Goldberg, Institute of Psychiatry, de Crespigny Park, LondonSE5 8AF, UK. (Email: David.Goldberg@iop.kcl.ac.uk)

Abstract

Background

The extant major psychiatric classifications DSM-IV, and ICD-10, are atheoretical and largely descriptive. Although this achieves good reliability, the validity of a medical diagnosis would be greatly enhanced by an understanding of risk factors and clinical manifestations. In an effort to group mental disorders on the basis of aetiology, five clusters have been proposed. This paper considers the validity of the fourth cluster, emotional disorders, within that proposal.

Method

We reviewed the literature in relation to 11 validating criteria proposed by a Study Group of the DSM-V Task Force, as applied to the cluster of emotional disorders.

Results

An emotional cluster of disorders identified using the 11 validators is feasible. Negative affectivity is the defining feature of the emotional cluster. Although there are differences between disorders in the remaining validating criteria, there are similarities that support the feasibility of an emotional cluster. Strong intra-cluster co-morbidity may reflect the action of common risk factors and also shared higher-order symptom dimensions in these emotional disorders.

Conclusion

Emotional disorders meet many of the salient criteria proposed by the Study Group of the DSM-V Task Force to suggest a classification cluster.

Type
Thematic section: A proposal for a meta-structure for DSM-V and ICD-11
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alonso, P, Menchon, JM, Mataix-Cols, D, Pifarre, J, Urretavizcaya, M, Crespo, JM, Jimenez, S, Vallejo, G, Vallejo, J (2004). Perceived parental rearing style in obsessive–compulsive disorder: relation to symptom dimensions. Psychiatry Research 127, 267278.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andrews, G, Goldberg, DP, Krueger, RF, Carpenter, WT Jr., Hyman, SE, Sachdev, P, Pine, DS (2009 a). Exploring the feasibility of a meta-structure for DSM-V and ICD-11: could it improve utility and validity? Psychological Medicine. doi:10.1017/S0033291709990250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andrews, G, Pine, DS, Hobbs, MJ, Anderson, TM, Sunderland, M (2009 b). Neurodevelopmental disorders: Cluster 2 of the proposed meta-structure for DSM-V and ICD-11. Psychological Medicine. doi:10.1017/S0033291709990274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angst, J (1998). Dysthymia and personality. European Psychiatry 13, 188197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angst, J, Gamma, A, Benazzi, F, Silverstein, B, Ajdacic-Gross, V, Eich, D, Rossler, W (2006). Atypical depressive syndromes in varying definitions. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 256, 4454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, AT (1976). Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. International Universities Press: New York, NY.Google Scholar
Beesdo, K, Bittner, A, Pine, DS, Stein, MB, Hofler, M, Lieb, R, Wittchen, H-U (2007). Incidence of social anxiety disorder and the consistent risk for secondary depression in the first three decades of life. Archives of General Psychiatry 64, 903912.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bienvenu, OJ, Samuels, JF, Costa, PT, Reti, IM, Eaton, WW, Nestadt, G (2004). Anxiety and depressive disorders and the five-factor model of personality: a higher- and lower-order personality trait investigation in a community sample. Depression and Anxiety 20, 9297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bittner, A, Goodwin, RD, Wittchen, H-U, Beesdo, K, Hofler, M, Lieb, R (2004). What characteristics of primary anxiety disorder predict subsequent major depressive disorder? Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 65, 618626.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breslau, N (2002). Epidemiologic studies of trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, and other psychiatric disorders. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 47, 923929.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brodaty, H, Luscombe, G, Peisah, C, Anstey, K, Andrews, G (2001). A 25-year longitudinal, comparison of the outcome of depression. Psychological Medicine 31, 13471359.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruce, SE, Yonkers, KA, Otto, MW, Eisen, JL, Weisberg, RB, Pagano, M, Shea, MT, Keller, MB (2005). Influence of psychiatric comorbidity on recovery and recurrence in generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia and panic disorder: a 12 year prospective study. American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 11791187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Butler, G, Mathews, A (1983). Cognitive processes in anxiety. Advances in Behaviour Research Therapy 5, 5162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cao, Y-P, Zhang, Y-L, Wang, G-O (2005). Paired analysis of the correlation of neurasthenia with personality, life events and Epstein–Barr virus. Chinese Journal of Clinical Rehabilitation 9, 211213.Google Scholar
Carpenter, WT Jr., Bustillo, JR, Thaker, GK, van Os, J, Krueger, RF, Green, MJ (2009). Psychoses: Cluster 3 of the proposed meta-structure for DSM-V and ICD-11. Psychological Medicine. doi:10.1017/S0033291709990286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A, Sugden, K, Moffitt, TE, Taylor, A, Craig, IW, Harrington, H, McClay, J, Mill, J, Martin, J, Braithwaite, A, Poulton, R (2003). Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science 301, 386389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chantarujikapong, SI, Scherrer, JF, Xian, H, Eisen, SA, Lyons, MJ, Goldberg, J, Tsuang, M, True, WR (2001). A twin study of generalized anxiety disorder symptoms, panic disorder symptoms and post-traumatic stress disorder in men. Psychiatry Research 103, 133145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Charney, DS (2003). Neuroanatomical circuits modulating fear and anxiety behaviors. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 108 (Suppl. 417), S38S50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, LA, Watson, D (1991). Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 100, 316336.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, LA, Watson, D (2006). Distress and fear disorders: an alternative empirically based taxonomy of the ‘mood’ and ‘anxiety’ disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry 189, 481483.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clifford, CA, Fulker, DW, Murray, RM (1984). Genetic and environmental influences on obsessional traits and symptoms. Psychological Medicine 14, 791800.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colman, I, Wadsworth, MEJ, Croudace, TJ, Jones, PB (2007). Forty-year psychiatric outcomes following assessment for internalizing disorder in adolescence. American Journal of Psychiatry 164, 126133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cook, EW, Hawk, LW, Davis, TL, Stevenson, VE (1991). Affective individual differences and startle reflex modulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 100, 513.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cox, BJ, Clara, IP, Enns, MW (2002). Posttraumatic stress disorder and the structure of common mental illness. Depression and Anxiety 15, 168171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cox, BJ, MacPherson, P, Enns, MW, McWilliams, LA (2004). Neuroticism and self-criticism associated with posttraumatic stress disorder in a nationally representative sample. Behaviour Research and Therapy 42, 105114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Craig, AD (2002). How do you feel? Interoception: the sense of the physiological condition of the body. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 3, 655666.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Craig, TKJ, Bialas, I, Hodson, S, Cox, AD (2004). Intergenerational transmission of somatization behaviour: 2. Observations of joint attention and bids for attention. Psychological Medicine 34, 199209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craig, TKJ, Cox, AD, Klein, K (2002). Intergenerational transmission of somatisation behaviour: a study of chronic somatisers and their children. Psychological Medicine 32, 805816.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Das-Munshi, J, Goldberg, DP, Bebbington, PE, Bhugra, DK, Brugha, TS, Dewey, ME, Jenkins, R, Stewart, R, Prince, M (2008). Public health significance of mixed anxiety and depression: beyond current classification. British Journal of Psychiatry 192, 171177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davidson, JR, Tupler, LA, Wilson, WH, Connor, KM (1998). A family study of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder following rape trauma. Journal of Psychiatric Research 32, 301309.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Gucht, V, Fischler, B, Heiser, W (2003). Job stress, personality, and psychological distress as determinants of somatization and functional somatic syndromes. Stress and Health 19, 195204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donaldson, SK, Klein, DN, Riso, LP, Schwartz, JE (1997). Comorbidity between dysthymic and major depressive disorders: a family study analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders 42, 103111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drevets, WC (2001). Neuroimaging and neuropathological studies of depression: implications for the cognitive-emotional features of mood disorders. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 11, 240249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drevets, WC (2003). Neuroimaging abnormalities in the amygdala in mood disorders. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 985, 420444.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eaton, WW, Shao, H, Nestadt, G, Lee, HB, Bienvenu, OJ, Zandi, P (2008). Population-based study of first onset and chronicity in major depressive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 65, 513520.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Egle, T, Nickel, R (1998). Psychosocial childhood risk factors in patients with somatoform disorders. Zeitschrift für Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychoanalyse 44, 2136.Google Scholar
Eley, TC, Collier, D, McGuffin, P (2002). Anxiety and eating disorders. In Psychiatric Genetics and Genomics (ed. McGuffin, P., Owen, M. J. and Gottesman, I. I.), pp. 303341. Oxford University Press: Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eley, TC, Sugden, K, Corsico, A, Gregory, AM, Sham, P, McGuffin, P, Plomin, R, Craig, IW (2004). Gene–environment interaction analysis of serotonin system markers with adolescent depression. Molecular Psychiatry 9, 908915.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Engelhard, IM, van den Hout, MA (2007). Preexisting neuroticism, subjective stressor severity, and posttraumatic stress in soldiers deployed to Iraq. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 52, 505509.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Etkin, A, Wager, TD (2007). Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: a meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia. American Journal of Psychiatry 164, 14761488.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ettelt, S, Grabe, HJ, Ruhrmann, S, Buhtz, F, Hochrein, A, Kraft, S, Pukrop, R, Klosterkotter, J, Falkai, P, Maier, W, John, U, Freyberger, HJ, Wagner, M (2008). Harm avoidance in subjects with obsessive–compulsive disorder and their families. Journal of Affective Disorders 107, 265269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eysenck, HJ (1964). The measurement of personality: a new instrument. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology 1, 111.Google Scholar
Fergusson, DM, Horwood, LJ, Boden, JM (2006). Structure of internalising symptoms in early adulthood. British Journal of Psychiatry 189, 540546.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fergusson, DM, Horwood, LJ, Ridder, EM (2005). Show me a child at seven: the consequences of conduct problems in childhood for psychosocial functioning in adulthood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 46, 837849.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Furukawa, TA, Watanabe, N, Omori, IM (in press). What (no) differences in pharmacologic treatment responses can teach us about distinctions between GAD and MDE. In Diagnostic Issues in Depression and Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Refining the Research Agenda for DSM-V (ed. Goldberg, D. P., Kendler, K. S., Sirovatka, P. and Regier, D. A.). American Psychiatric Association: Arlington, VA.Google Scholar
Fyer, AJ, Mannuzza, S, Chapman, TF, Martin, LY, Klein, DF (1995). Specificity in familial aggregation of phobic disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 52, 564573.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilbertson, MW, Paulus, LA, Williston, SK, Gurvits, TV, Lasko, NB, Pitman, RK, Orr, SP (2006). Neurocognitive function in monozygotic twin discordant for combat exposure: relationship to posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 115, 484495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilboa-Schechtman, E, Erhard-Weiss, D, Jeczemien, P (2002). Interpersonal deficits meet cognitive biases: memory for facial expression in depressed and anxious men and women. Psychiatry Research 113, 279293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gillespie, NA, Whitfield, JB, Williams, B, Heath, AC, Martin, NG (2005). The relationship between stressful life events, the serotonin transporter (5-HTTLPR) genotype, and major depression. Psychological Medicine 35, 101111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gillespie, NA, Zhu, G, Heath, AC, Hickie, IB, Martin, NG (2000). The genetic aetiology of somatic distress. Psychological Medicine 30, 10511062.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, DP, Bridges, K, Duncan-Jones, P, Grayson, D (1987). Dimensions of neuroses seen in primary care settings. Psychological Medicine 17, 461470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, DP, Gater, R, Sartorius, N, Ustun, TB, Piccinelli, M, Gureje, O, Rutter, C (1997). The validity of two versions of the GHQ in the WHO study of mental illness in general health care. Psychological Medicine 27, 191197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldstein, RB, Weissman, MM, Adams, PB, Horwath, E, Lish, JD, Charney, D, Woods, SW, Sobin, C, Wickramaratne, PJ (1994). Psychiatric disorder in relatives of probands with panic disorder and/or major depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 51, 383394.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grayson, DA, Bridges, K, Duncan-Jones, P, Goldberg, DP (1987). The relationship between symptoms and diagnoses of minor psychiatric disorder in general practice. Psychological Medicine 17, 933942.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanna, GL, Fisher, DJ, Chadha, KR, Himle, JA, van Etten, M (2005). Familial and sporadic subtypes of early-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biological Psychiatry 57, 895900.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hariri, AR, Mattay, VS, Tessitore, A, Kolachana, B, Fera, F, Goldman, D, Egan, MF, Weinberger, DR (2002). Serotonin transporter genetic variation and the response of the human amygdala. Science 297, 400403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harkness, AR, McNulty, JL, Ben-Porath, YS (1995). The personality psychopathology five (PSY-5) : constructs and MMPI-2 scales. Psychological Assessment 7, 104114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawker, DSJ, Boulton, MJ (2000). Twenty years' research on peer victimization and psychosocial maladjustment: a meta-analytic review of cross-sectional studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 41, 441455.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heim, C, Nemeroff, CB (2001). The role of childhood trauma in the neurobiology of mood and anxiety disorders: preclinical and clinical studies. Biological Psychiatry 49, 10231029.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heim, C, Newport, DJ, Heit, S, Graham, YP, Wilcox, M, Bonsall, R, Miller, AH, Nemeroff, CB (2000). Pituitary-adrenal and autonomic responses to stress in women after sexual and physical abuse in childhood. Journal of the American Medical Association 284, 592597.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hettema, JM, Neale, MC, Myers, JM, Prescott, CA, Kendler, KS (2006). A population-based twin study of the relationship between neuroticism and internalizing disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry 163, 857864.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hettema, JM, Prescott, CA, Kendler, KS (2004). Genetic and environmental sources of covariation between generalized anxiety disorder and neuroticism. American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 15811587.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hexel, M, Sonneck, G (2002). Somatoform symptoms, anxiety, and depression in the context of traumatic life experiences by comparing participants with and without psychiatric diagnoses. Psychopathology 35, 303312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Houtveen, JH, van Doornen, LJP (2007). Medically unexplained symptoms and between-group differences in 24-h ambulatory recording of stress physiology. Biological Psychology 76, 239249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hudson, JI, Mangweth, B, Pope, HG, De Col, C, Hausmann, A, Gutweniger, S, Laird, NM, Biebl, W, Tsuang, MT (2003). Family study of affective spectrum disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 60, 170177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacob, KS (in press). Confirmatory factor analysis of common mental disorders. In Diagnostic Issues in Depression and Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Refining the Research Agenda for DSM-V (ed. Goldberg, D. P., Kendler, K. S., Sirovatka, P. and Regier, D. A.). American Psychiatric Association: Arlington, VA.Google Scholar
Jaffee, SR, Moffitt, TE, Capsi, A, Fombonne, E, Poulton, R, Martin, J (2002). Differences in early childhood risk factors for juvenile-onset and adult-onset depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 59, 215222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jardine, R, Martin, NG, Henderson, AS (1984). Genetic covariation between neuroticism and the symptoms of anxiety and depression. Genetic Epidemiology 1, 89107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kemp, AH, Hopkinson, PJ, Hermens, DF, Rowe, DL, Sumich, AL, Clark, R, Drinkenburg, W, Abdi, N, Penrose, R, McFarlane, A, Boyce, P, Gordon, E, Williams, LM (2009). Fronto-temporal alterations within the first 200 ms during an attentional task distinguish major depression, non-clinical participants with depressed mood and healthy controls: a potential biomarker? Human Brain Mapping 30, 602614.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, KS, Davis, CG, Kessler, RC (1997). The familial aggregation of common psychiatric and substance use disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey: a family history study. British Journal of Psychiatry 170, 541548.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, KS, Gardner, CO, Gatz, M, Pedersen, NL (2007). The sources of co-morbidity between major depression and generalized anxiety disorder in a Swedish national twin sample. Psychological Medicine 37, 453462.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendler, KS, Gatz, M, Gardner, CO, Pedersen, NL (2006). Personality and major depression: a Swedish longitudinal, population-based twin study. Archives of General Psychiatry 63, 11131120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, KS, Kuhn, JW, Prescott, CA (2004). Childhood sexual abuse, stressful life events and risk for major depression in women. Psychological Medicine 34, 14751482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, KS, Kuhn, JW, Vittum, J, Prescott, CA, Riley, B (2005). The interaction of stressful life events and a serotonin transporter polymorphism in the prediction of episodes of major depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 62, 529535.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendler, KS, Neale, MC, Kessler, RC, Heath, AC, Eaves, LJ (1992). Major depression and generalized anxiety disorder: same genes, (partly) different environments? Archives of General Psychiatry 49, 716722.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, KS, Neale, MC, Kessler, RC, Heath, AC, Eaves, LJ (1993). A longitudinal twin study of personality and major depression in women. Archives of General Psychiatry 50, 853862.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, KS, Prescott, CA, Myers, J, Neale, MC (2003). The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for common psychiatric and substance use disorders in men and women. Archives of General Psychiatry 60, 929937.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, RC, Wai, TC, Chui, WT, Delmer, O, Merikangas, KR, Walters, EE (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry 62, 617627.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, RC, Gruber, M, Hettema, JM, Hwang, I, Sampson, N, Yonkers, KA (in press). Major depression and generalized anxiety disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Follow-up Survey. In Diagnostic Issues in Depression and Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Refining the Research Agenda for DSM-V (ed. Goldberg, D. P., Kendler, K. S., Sirovatka, P. and Regier, D. A.). American Psychiatric Association: Arlington, VA.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Nelson, CB, McGonagle, KA, Lui, J, Swartz, M, Blazer, DG (1996). Comorbidity of DSM-III-R major depressive disorder in the general population: results from the US National Comorbidity Survey. British Journal of Psychiatry. Supplement 168, 1730.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khan, AA, Jacobson, KC, Gardner, CO, Prescott, CA, Kendler, KS (2005). Personality and comorbidity of common psychiatric disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry 186, 190196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim-Cohen, J, Caspi, A, Moffitt, TE, Harrington, H, Milne, BJ, Poulton, R (2003). Prior juvenile diagnoses in adults with mental disorders: developmental follow-back of a prospective-longitudinal cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry 60, 709717.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klein, DN, Riso, LP, Donaldson, SK, Schwartz, JE, Anderson, RL, Ouimette, PC, Lizardi, H, Aronson, TA (1995). Family study of early-onset dysthymia: mood and personalty disorders in relatives of outpatients with dysthymia and episodic major depression and normal controls. Archives of General Psychiatry 52, 487496.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koenen, K, Moffitt, TE, Poulton, R, Martin, J, Caspi, A (2007). Early childhood factors associated with the development of posttraumatic stress disorder: results from a longitudinal birth cohort. Psychological Medicine 37, 181192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koenen, KC, Lyons, MJ, Goldberg, J, Simpson, J, Williams, WM, Toomey, R, Eisen, SA, True, WR, Cloitre, M, Wolfe, J, Tsuang, MT (2003). A high risk twin study of combat-related PTSD comorbidity. Twin Research 6, 218226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krantz, S, Hammen, C (1979). Assessment of cognitive bias in depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 88, 611619.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krueger, RF (1999 a). The structure of common mental disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 56, 921927.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krueger, RF (1999 b). Personality traits in late adolescence predict mental disorders in early adulthood: a prospective-epidemiological study. Journal of Personality 67, 3965.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krueger, RF, Caspi, A, Moffitt, TE, Silva, PA (1998). The structure and stability of common mental disorders (DSM-III-R) : a longitudinal-epidemiological study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 107, 216227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krueger, RF, Caspi, A, Moffitt, TE, Silva, PA, McGee, R (1996). Personality traits are differentially linked to mental disorders: a multitrait–multidiagnosis study of an adolescent birth cohort. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 105, 299312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krueger, RF, Chentsova-Dutton, YE, Markon, KE, Goldberg, DP, Ormel, JH (2003). A cross-cultural study of the structure of comorbidity among common psychopathological syndromes in the general health care setting. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 112, 437447.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krueger, RF, McGrue, M, Iacono, WG (2001). The higher order structure of common DSM mental disorders: internalization, externalization, and their connections to personality. Personality and Individual Differences 30, 12451259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krueger, RF, South, SC (2009). Externalizing disorders: Cluster 5 of the proposed meta-structure for DSM-V and ICD-11. Psychological Medicine. doi:10.1017/S0033291709990328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kvaal, SA, Patodia, S (2000). Relations among positive affect, negative affect, and somatic symptoms in a medically ill patient sample. Psychological Reports 87, 227233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lahey, BB, Rathouz, PJ, van Hulle, C, Urbano, RC, Krueger, RF, Applegate, B, Garriock, HA, Chapman, DA, Waldman, ID (2008). Testing structural models of DSM-IV symptoms of common forms of child and adolescent psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 36, 187206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lang, PJ, Bradley, MM, Cuthbert, BN, Patrick, CJ (1993). Emotion and psychopathology: a startle probe analysis. In Progress in Experimental Personality and Psychopathology Research (ed. Chapman, L. J., Chapman, J. P. and Fowles, D. C.), pp. 163199. Springer: New York, NY.Google Scholar
Lesch, K-P, Bengel, D, Heils, A, Sabol, SZ, Greenberg, BD, Petri, S, Benjamin, J, Muller, CR, Hamer, DH, Murphy, DL (1996). Association of anxiety-related traits with a polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene regulatory region. Science 274, 15271531.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieb, R, Isensee, B, Hofler, M, Pfister, H, Wittchen, H-U (2002 a). Parental major depression and the risk of depression and other metal disorders in offspring: a prospective-longitudinal community study. Archives of General Psychiatry 59, 365374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lieb, R, Zimmerman, P, Friis, RH, Hofler, M, Tholen, S, Wittchen, H-U (2002 b). The natural course of DSM-IV somatoform disorders and syndromes among adolescents and young adults: a prospective-longitudinal community study. European Psychiatry 17, 321331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lotich, FE, Pollock, BG (2004). Meta-analysis of serotonin transporter polymorphisms and affective disorder. Psychiatric Genetics 14, 121129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacLeod, AK, Byrne, A (1996). Anxiety, depression, and the anticipation of future positive and negative experiences. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 105, 286289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, EI, Nemeroff, CB (in press). The biology of generalized anxiety disorder and major depressive disorder: commonalities and distinguishing features. In Diagnostic Issues in Depression and Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Refining the Research Agenda for DSM-V (ed. Goldberg, D. P., Kendler, K. S., Sirovatka, P. and Regier, D. A.). American Psychiatric Association: Arlington, VA.Google Scholar
McGrady, A, Lynch, D, Nagel, R, Zsembik, C (1999). Application of the high risk model of threat perception to a primary care patient population. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 187, 369375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mendlewicz, J, Papadimitrou, G, Wilmotte, J (1993). Family study of panic disorder: comparison with generalized anxiety disorder, major depression and normal subjects. Psychiatric Genetics 3, 7378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merikangas, KR, Zhang, H, Avenevoli, S, Acharyya, S, Neuenschwander, M, Angst, J (2003). Longitudinal trajectories of depression and anxiety in a prospective community study. Archives of General Psychiatry 60, 9931000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mineka, S, Watson, D, Clark, LA (1998). Co-morbidity of anxiety and unipolar mood disorders. Annual Review of Psychology 49, 377412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, TE, Caspi, A, Harrington, HL, Milne, B, Melchior, M, Goldberg, DP, Poulton, R (2007 a). Generalized anxiety disorder and depression: childhood risk factors in a birth cohort followed to age 32. Psychological Medicine 37, 112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, TE, Harrington, HL, Caspi, A, Kim-Cohen, J, Goldberg, DP, Gregory, A, Poulton, R (2007 b). Depression and generalized anxiety disorder: cumulative and sequential comorbidity in a birth cohort followed to age 32. Archives of General Psychiatry 64, 651660.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Monk, CS, Telzer, EH, Mogg, K, Bradley, BP, Mai, X, Louro, HM, Chen, G, McClure-Tone, EB, Ernst, M, Pine, DS (2008). Amygdala and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex activation to masked angry faces in children and adolescents with generalized anxiety disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 65, 568576.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Narrow, WE, Rae, DS, Robins, LN, Regier, DA (2002). Revised prevalence estimates of mental disorders in the United States. Archives of General Psychiatry 59, 115123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nestadt, G, Samuels, J, Riddle, MA, Liang, K-Y, Bienvenu, OJ, Hoehn-Saric, R, Grados, M, Cullen, B (2001). The relationship between obsessive compulsive disorder and affective disorders: results from the Johns Hopkins OCD Family Study. Psychological Medicine 31, 481487.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Office for National Statistics (2000). Psychiatric Morbidity Among Adults Living in Private Households, 2000: Summary Report. Department of Health: London, UK.Google Scholar
Ono, Y, Yoshimura, K, Yamauchi, K, Asai, M, Young, J, Fujihara, S, Kitamura, T (2000). Somatoform symptoms in a Japanese community population: prevalence and association with personality characteristics. Transcultural Psychiatry 37, 217227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ormel, J, Oldehinkel, AJ, Goldberg, DP, Hodiamont, PP, Wilimink, FW, Bridges, K (1995). The structure of common psychiatric symptoms: how many dimensions of neurosis? Psychological Medicine 25, 521530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pauls, DL, Alsobrook, JP, Goodman, W, Rasmussen, S, Leckman, JF (1995). A family study of obsessive–compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 152, 7684.Google ScholarPubMed
Phan, KL, Wager, T, Taylor, SF, Liberzon, I (2002). Functional neuroanatomy of emotion: a meta-analysis of emotion activation studies in PET and fMRI. NeuroImage 16, 331348.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pine, DS, Cohen, P, Gurley, D, Brook, J, Ma, Y (1998). The risk for early adulthood anxiety and depressive disorders in adolescents with anxiety and depressive disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 55, 5664.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rapee, RM, Bryant, RA (2009). Stress and psychosocial factors in the onset of fear circuitry disorders. In Stress and Fear Circuitry Disorders (ed. Andrews, G., Charney, D. S., Sirovatka, P. J. and Regier, D. A.), pp. 195215. American Psychiatric Association: Arlington, VA.Google Scholar
Rapoport, JL, Shaw, P (2008). Obsessive compulsive disorder. In Rutter's Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 5th edn (ed. Rutter, M., Bishop, D. V. N., Pine, D. S., Scott, S., Stevenson, J. S., Taylor, E. A. and Thapar, A.), pp. 698718. Wiley-Blackwell: Oxford, UK.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rashed, S, Kamel, S, Hassan, M, Mahfouz, A (2001). Psychometric study of dysthymic patients and their first-degree relatives. Journal of the Egyptian Public Health Association 76, 89105.Google ScholarPubMed
Rauch, SL, Drevets, WC (2009). Neuroimaging and neuroanatomy of stress-induced and fear circuitry disorders. In Stress and Fear Circuitry Disorders (ed. Andrews, G., Charney, D. S., Sirovatka, P. J. and Regier, D. A.), pp. 215255. American Psychiatric Association: Arlington, VA.Google Scholar
Rauch, SL, Shin, LM, Phelps, EA (2006). Neurocircuitry models of posttraumatic stress disorder and extinction: human neuroimaging research – past, present, and future. Biological Psychiatry 60, 376382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rauch, SL, Shin, LM, Wright, CI (2003). Neuroimaging studies of amygdale function in anxiety disorders. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 985, 389410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Regier, DA, Rae, DS, Narrow, WE, Kaelber, CT, Schatzberg, AF (1998). Prevalence of anxiety disorders and their comorbidity with mood and addictive disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry (Suppl.) 173, 2428.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reich, J (1995). Family psychiatric histories in male patients with generalized anxiety disorder and major depressive disorder. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry 7, 7178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reilly, J, Baker, GA, Rhodes, J, Salmon, P (1999). The association of sexual and physical abuse with somatization: characteristics of patients presenting with irritable bowel syndrome and non-epileptic attack disorder. Psychological Medicine 29, 399406.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reiter, RC, Shakerin, LR, Gambone, JC, Milburn, AK (1991). Correlation between sexual abuse and somatization in women with somatic and nonsomatic chronic pelvic pain. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 165, 104109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rhebergen, D, Beekman, ATF, de Graaf, R, Nolen, WA, Spijker, J, Hoogendijk, WJ, Pennix, BWJK (2009). The three-year naturalistic course of major depressive disorder, dysthymic disorder and double depression. Journal of Affective Disorders 115, 450459.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roelofs, K, Keijsers, GPJ, Hoogduin, KAL, Naring, GWB, Moene, FC (2002). Childhood abuse in patients with conversion disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 159, 19081913.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sachdev, P, Andrews, G, Hobbs, MJ, Sunderland, M, Anderson, TM (2009). Neurocognitive disorders: Cluster 1 of the proposed meta-structure for DSM-V and ICD-11. Psychological Medicine. doi:10.1017/S0033291709990262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schinka, JA, Busch, RM, Robichaux-Keene, N (2004). A meta-analysis of the association between the serotonin transporter gene polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) and trait anxiety. Molecular Psychiatry 9, 197202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sen, S, Burmeister, M, Ghosh, D (2004). Meta-analysis of the association between a serotonin transporter promoter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) and anxiety-related personality traits. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics 127B, 8589.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skre, I, Onstad, S, Torgersen, S, Lygren, S, Kringlen, E (1993). A twin study of DSM-III-R anxiety disorders. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 88, 8592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slade, T, Watson, D (2006). The structure of common DSM-IV and ICD-10 mental disorders in the Australian general population. Psychological Medicine 36, 15931600.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swedo, SE, Rapoport, JL, Leonard, H, Leane, M, Cheslow, D (1989). Obsessive–compulsive disorder in children and adolescents. Clinical phenomenology of 70 consecutive cases. Archives of General Psychiatry 46, 335341.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tomarken, AJ, Keener, AD (1998). Frontal brain asymmetry and depression: a self-regulatory perspective. Cognition and Emotion 12, 387420.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Torgersen, S (1986). Genetics of somatoform disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 43, 502505.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ustun, TB, Sartorius, N (1995). Mental Illness in General Health Care: An International Study. Wiley: Geneva.Google Scholar
van den Hout, MA, Engelhard, IM (2004). Pretrauma neuroticism, negative appraisals of intrusions, and severity of PTSD symptoms. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment 26, 181183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vollebergh, WAM, Iedema, J, Bijl, RV, de Graaf, R, Smit, F, Ormel, J (2001). The structure and stability of common mental disorders: the NEMESIS study. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 597603.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, EA, Gelfand, AN, Gelfand, MD, Koss, MP, Katon, WJ (1995). Medical and psychiatric symptoms in female gastroenterology clinic patients with histories of sexual victimization. General Hospital Psychiatry 17, 8592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, D, Clark, LA, Tellegen, A (1984). Cross-cultural convergence in the structure of mood. A Japanese replication and comparison with US findings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 47, 127144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weissman, MM, Wickramaratne, P, Nomura, Y, Warner, V, Verdeli, H, Pilowsky, DJ, Grillon, C, Bruder, G (2005). Families at high and low risk for depression: a 3-generation study. Archives of General Psychiatry 62, 2936.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Widom, CS (1999). Posttraumatic stress disorder in abused and neglected children grown up. American Journal of Psychiatry 156, 12231229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilhelm, K, Mitchell, PB, Niven, H (2006). Life events, first depression onset, and the serotonin transporter gene. British Journal of Psychiatry 188, 210215.Google ScholarPubMed
Williamson, RJ, Neale, BM, Sterne, A, Prince, M, Sham, P (2005). The value of four mental health self-report scales in predicting interview-based mood and anxiety disorder diagnoses in sibling pairs. Twin Research and Human Genetics 8, 101107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Willis-Owen, SAG, Turri, MG, Munafo, MR, Surtees, PG, Wainwright, NWJ, Brixey, RD, Flint, J (2005). The serotonin transporter length polymorphism, neuroticism, and depression: a comprehensive assessment of association. Biological Psychiatry 58, 451456.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wittchen, H-U, Kessler, RC, Pfister, H, Hofler, M, Lieb, R (2000). Why do people with anxiety disorders become depressed? A prospective-longitudinal community study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica (Suppl.) 102, 1423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar