Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-r7xzm Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-28T09:50:56.880Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

A Protein-Stat Mechanism for Regulation of Growth and Maintenance of the Lean Body Mass

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 December 2007

D. Joe Millward
Affiliation:
Centre for Nutrition and Food Safety, School of Biological Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 5XH
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © The Nutrition Society 1995

References

1Allen, L. H. (1994). Nutritional influences on linear growth: a general review. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 48, S75–S89.Google ScholarPubMed
2Allen, R. E. & Rankin, L. L. (1990). Regulation of satellite cells during skeletal muscle growth and development. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 194, 8186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
3Ashworth, A. (1974). Ad lib. feeding during recovery from malnutrition. British Journal of Nutrition 31, 109112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
4Ashworth, A. & Millward, D. J. (1986). Catch-up growth in children. Nutrition Reviews 44, 157163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
5Bishop, J. E., Butt, R. P. & Low, R. B. (1995). The effect of mechanical forces on cell function: implications for pulmonary vascular remodelling due to hypertension. In Pulmonary Vascular Remodelling, pp. 213239 [ J., Bishop, J., Reeves and G., Laurent, editors]. London: Portland Press.Google Scholar
6Blundell, J. E. (1992). Serotonin and the biology of feeding. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 55 (Suppl. 1), 155S159S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7Blundell, J. E. & Hill, A. J. (1992). Dexfenfluramine and appetite in humans. International Journal of Obesity 16, S51–S59.Google ScholarPubMed
8Blundell, J. E., Lawton, C. L. & Hill, A. J. (1993). Mechanisms of appetite control and their abnormalities in obese patients. Hormone Research 39 (Supplement 3), 7276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
9Brooke, O. G. & Wheeler, E. F. (1976). High energy feeding in protein-energy malnutrition. Archives of Disease in Childhood 51, 968971.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
10Chesters, J. K. & Quarterman, J. (1970). Effects of zinc deficiency on food intake and feeding patterns of rats. British Journal of Nutrition 24, 10611069.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11Chesters, J. K. & Will, M. (1973). Some factors controlling food intake by zinc-deficient rats. British Journal of Nutrition 30, 555566.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
12Coyer, P. A., Rivers, J. P. W. & Millward, D. J. (1987). The effect of dietary protein and energy restriction on heat production and growth costs in the young rat. British Journal of Nutrition 58, 7385.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
13De Castro, J. M. (1987). Macronutrient relationships with meal patterns and mood in the spontaneous feeding behavior of humans. Physiology and Behavior 39, 561569.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14De Graaf, C., Hulshof, T., Weststrate, J. A. & Jas, P. (1992). Short-term effects of different amounts of protein, fats, and carbohydrates on satiety. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 55, 3338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
15Deriaz, O., Fournier, G., Tremblay, A., Despres, J. P. & Bouchard, C. (1992). Lean body mass composition and resting energy expenditure before and after long-term overfeeding. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 56, 840847.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16Dickerson, J. W. T. & McCance, R. A. (1961). Severe undernutrition in growing and adult animals. 8. The dimensions and chemistry of the long bones. British Journal of Nutrition 15, 567576.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
17Dix, D. J. & Eisenberg, B. R. (1990). Myosin mRNA accumulation and myofibrillogenesis at the myotendinous junction of stretched muscle fibers. Journal of Cell Biology 111, 18851894.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
18Essig, D. A., Devol, D. L., Bechtel, P. J. & Trannel, T. J. (1991). Expression of embryonic myosin heavy chain mRNA in stretched adult chicken skeletal muscle. American Journal of Physiology 260, C1325–C1331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19Felig, P. (1981). Inter-organ amino acid exchange. In Nitrogen Metabolism in Man, pp. 4561 [ J. C., Waterlow and J. M. L., Stephen, editors]. London: Applied Science.Google Scholar
20Fernstrom, J. D. (1991). Effects of the diet and other metabolic phenomena on brain tryptophan uptake and serotonin synthesis. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 294, 369376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
21Fernstrom, J. D. & Wurtman, R. J. (1972). Brain serotonin content: physiological regulation by plasma neutral amino acids. Science 178, 414416.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
22Fernstrom, M. H. & Fernstrom, J. D. (1993). Large changes in serum free tryptophan levels do not alter brain tryptophan levels: studies in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Life Sciences 52, 907916.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
23Fernstrom, M. H. & Fernstrom, J. D. (1995). Brain tryptophan concentrations and serotonin synthesis remain responsive to food consumption after the ingestion of sequential meals. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 61, 312319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
24Forbes, G. B. (1985). Body composition as affected by physical activity and nutrition. Federation Proceedings 44, 343347.Google ScholarPubMed
25Forbes, G. B. (1988). Body composition: influence of nutrition, disease, growth and aging. In Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, pp. 533556 [ M. E., Shils and V. R., Young, editors]. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger.Google Scholar
26Gietzen, D. W. (1993). Neural mechanisms involved in the responses to amino acid deficiency. Journal of Nutrition 123, 610625.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
27Giugliano, R. & Millward, D. J. (1984). Growth and zinc homeostasis in the severely Zn-deficient rat. British Journal of Nutrition 52, 545560.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
28Giugliano, R. & Millward, D. J. (1987). The effects of severe zinc deficiency on protein turnover in muscle and thymus. British Journal of Nutrition 57, 139155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
29Golden, B. E. (1989). Zinc in cell division and tissue growth: physiological aspects. In Zinc in Human Biology, pp. 173181 [ C. F., Mills, editor]. London: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
30Golden, B. E. & Golden, M. H. N. (1985). Effect of zinc supplementation on the composition of newly synthesized tissue in children recovering from malnutrition. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 44, 110A.Google Scholar
31Golden, M. H. N. (1988). The role of individual nutrient deficiencies in growth retardation of children as exemplified by zinc and protein. In Linear Growth Retardation in Less Developed Countries (Nestlé Nutrition Workshop Series, vol. 14), pp. 143163 [J. C., Waterlow, editor]. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
32Golden, M. H. N. (1994). Is complete catch-up possible for stunted malnourished children? European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 48, S58–S71.Google ScholarPubMed
33Goldspink, D. F., Easton, J., Winterburn, S. K., Williams, P. E. & Goldspink, G. E. (1991). The role of passive stretch and repetitive electrical stimulation in preventing skeletal muscle atrophy while reprogramming gene expression to improve fatigue resistance. Journal of Cardiac Surgery 6, 218224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
34Goss, R. J. (1978). Adaptive mechanisms of growth control. In Human Growth, vol. 1, Principles and Prenatal Growth, pp. 321 [ F., Falkner and J. M., Tanner, editors]. New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
35Gould, R. P. (1973). The microanatomy of muscle. In The Structure and Function of Muscle, 2nd edn, vol. 2, Structure Part 2, pp. 185241 [ G. H., Bourne, editor]. New York: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
36Graham, G. G., Lembcke, J. & Morales, E. (1990). Quality-protein maize as the sole source of dietary protein and fat for rapidly growing young children. Pediatrics 85, 8591.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
37Gurr, M. I., Mawson, R., Rothwell, N. J. & Stock, M. J. (1980). Effects of manipulating dietary protein and energy intake on energy balance and thermogenesis in the pig. Journal of Nutrition 110, 532542.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
38Hansen-Smith, F. M., Picou, D. & Golden, M. H. N. (1979). Growth of muscle fibres during recovery from severe malnutrition in Jamaican infants. British Journal of Nutrition 41, 275282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
39Harper, A. E. & Peters, J. C. (1989). Protein intake, brain amino acid and serotonin concentrations and protein self-selection. Journal of Nutrition 119, 677689.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
40Haussinger, D. (1995). Regulation of metabolism by changes in cellular hydration. Clinical Nutrition 14, 412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
41Haussinger, D. & Lang, F. (1992). Cell volume and hormone action. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 13, 371373.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
42Haussinger, D., Roth, E., Lang, F. & Gerok, W. (1993). Cellular hydration state: an important determinant of protein catabolism in health and disease. Lancet 341, 13301332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
43Heinig, M. J., Nommsen, L. A., Peerson, J. M., Lonnerdal, B. & Dewey, K. G. (1993). Energy and protein intakes of breast-fed and formula-fed infants during the first year of life and their association with growth velocity: the DARLING study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 58, 152161.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
44Jackson, A. A. & Wooton, S. A. (1990). The energy requirement of growth and catch-up growth. In Activity, Energy Expenditure and Energy Requirement of Infants and Children, I/D/E.C.G. [ B., Schurch and N. S., Scrimshaw, editors]. Lausanne: I/D/E/C/G.Google Scholar
45Jepson, M. M., Bates, P. C. & Millward, D. J. (1988). The role of insulin and thyroid hormones in the regulation of muscle growth and protein turnover in response to dietary protein in the rat. British Journal of Nutrition 59,397415.Google ScholarPubMed
46Kabir, I., Butler, T., Underwood, L. E. & Rahman, M. M. (1992). Effects of a protein-rich diet during convalescence from shigellosis on catch-up growth, serum proteins, and insulin-like growth factor-I. Pediatric Research 32, 689692.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47Kabir, I., Malek, M. A., Mazumber, R. N., Rahman, M. M. & Mahalanabis, D. (1993). Rapid catch-up growth of children fed a high-protein diet during convalescence from shigellosis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 57, 441445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48Kashyap, S., Schulze, K. F., Forsyth, M., Zucker, C., Dell, R. B., Ramakrishnan, R. & Heird, W. C. (1988). Growth, nutrient retention and metabolic response in low birth weight infants fed varying intakes of protein and energy. Journal of Pediatrics 113, 713721.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
49Laurent, G. J. & Millward, D. J. (1980). Protein turnover during skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Federation Proceedings 39, 4247.Google ScholarPubMed
50Laurent, G. J., Sparrow, M. P., Bates, P. C. & Millward, D. J. (1978). Turnover of muscle protein in the fowl. Collagen content and turnover in cardiac and skeletal muscles of adult fowl and the changes during stretch induced growth. Biochemical Journal 176, 419427.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
51Leathwood, P. D. (1987). Tryptophan availability and serotonin synthesis. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 46, 143156.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
52McCusker, R. H. & Clemmons, D. R. (1988). Insulin-like growth factor binding protein secretion by muscle cells: effect of cellular differentiation and proliferation. Journal of Cellular Physiology 137, 505512.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
53Mack, P. B., Vose, G. P., Kinard, C. L. & Campbell, H. B. (1962). Effects of lysine-supplemented diets on growth and skeletal density of preadolescent children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 11, 255262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
54Martorell, R. (1985). Child growth retardation: a discussion of its causes and its relationships to health. In Nutritional Adaptation in Man, pp. 1317 [ K. L., Blaxter, and J. C., Waterlow, editors]. London: John Libby.Google Scholar
55Melinkoff, S. M., Frankland, M., Boyle, D. & Greipal, M. (1956). Relationship between serum amino acid concentration and fluctuations in appetite. Journal of Applied Physiology 8, 535538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
56Millward, D. J. (1989). The endocrine response to dietary protein: the anabolic drive on growth. In Milk Proteins, pp. 4959 [ C. A., Barth and E., Schlimme, editors]. Darmstadt: Steimkopff Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
57Millward, D. J. (1990). The hormonal control of protein turnover. Clinical Nutrition 9, 115126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
58Millward, D. J. (1995). Insulin and the regulation of amino acid catabolism and protein turnover. In Amino Acid Metabolism in Health and Disease, pp. 127136 [ L., Cynober, editor]. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.Google Scholar
59Millward, D. J., Bowtell, J. L., Pacy, P. & Rennie, M. J. (1994). Physical activity, protein metabolism and protein requirements. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 53, 223240.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
60Millward, D. J., Garlick, P. J., Stewart, R. J. C., Nnanyelugo, D. O. & Waterlow, J. C. (1975). Skeletal-muscle growth and protein turnover. Biochemical Journal 150, 235243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
61Millward, D. J. & Rivers, J. P. W. (1989). The need for indispensable amino acids: the concept of the anabolic drive. Diabetes and Metabolism Reviews 5, 191212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
62Millward, D. J. & Waterlow, J. C. (1978). Effect of nutrition on protein turnover in skeletal muscle. Federation Proceedings 37, 22832290.Google ScholarPubMed
63Mohan, S., Bautista, C. M., Wergedal, J. & Baylink, D. J. (1990). Isolation of an inhibitory insulin-like growth factor (IGF) binding protein from bone-cellconditioned medium: a potential local regulator of IGF action. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 86, 83388342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
64Mori, M., Kawada, T. & Torii, K. (1991). Appetite and taste preference in growing rats given various levels of protein nutrition. Brain Research Bulletin 27, 417422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
65Munro, H. N. (1964). General aspects of the regulation of protein metabolism by diet and by hormones. In Mammalian Protein Metabolism, vol. 2, pp. 381481 [ H. N., Munro and J. B., Allison, editors]. London: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
66Nilsson, A., Ohlsson, C., Isaksson, O. G. P., Lindahl, A. & Isgaard, J. (1994). Hormonal regulation of longitudinal bone growth. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 48 (Supplement 1), S150–S160.Google ScholarPubMed
67O'Dell, B. L. & Reeves, P. G. (1988). Zinc status and food intake. In Zinc in Human Biology, pp. 173181 [ C. F., Mills, editor]. London: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
68Paik, H. Y., Hwang, S. H. & Lee, S. P. (1992). Comparative analysis of growth, diet, and urinary N excretion in elementary school children from urban and rural areas of Korea. International Journal of Vitamin and Nutrition Research 62, 8390.Google Scholar
69Parker, D. F., Round, J. M., Sacco, P. & Jones, D. A. (1990). A cross-sectional survey of upper and lower limb strength in boys and girls during childhood and adolescence. Annals of Human Biology 17, 199212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
70Pijl, H., Koppeschaar, H. P. F., Cohen, A. F., Iestra, J. A., Schoemaker, H. C., Frolich, M., Onkenhout, W. & Meinders, A. E. (1993). Evidence for brain serotonin-mediated control of carbohydrate consumption in normal weight and obese humans. International Journal of Obesity 17, 513520.Google ScholarPubMed
71Price, G. M., Halliday, D., Pacy, P. J., Quevedo, M. R. & Millward, D. J. (1994 a). Nitrogen homoeostasis in man. 1. Influence of protein intake on the amplitude of diurnal cycling of body nitrogen. Clinical Science 86, 91102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
72Price, J. S., Oyajobi, B. O. & Russell, R. G. G. (1994 b). The cell biology of bone growth. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 48, S131–S149.Google ScholarPubMed
73Quevedo, M. R., Price, G. M., Halliday, D., Pacy, P. J. & Millward, D. J. (1994). Nitrogen homoeostasis in man. 3. Diurnal changes in nitrogen excretion, leucine oxidation and whole body leucine kinetics during a reduction from a high to a moderate protein intake. Clinical Science 86, 185193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
74Picou, D., Reeds, P. J., Jackson, A. A. & Poulter, N. (1976). The measurement of muscle mass in children using [15N]creatine. Pediatric Research 10, 184188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
75Roehrig, K. L. (1991). The influence of food on food intake: methodological problems and mechanisms of action. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 30, 575597.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
76Russell, B., Dix, D. J., Haller, D. L. & Jacobs, E. L. J. (1992). Repair of injured skeletal muscle: a molecular approach. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 24, 189196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
77Sadoshima, J. & Izumo, S. (1993). Mechanical stretch rapidly activates multiple signal transduction pathways in cardiac myocytes: potential involvement of an autocrine/paracrine mechanism. EMBO Journal 12, 16811692.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
78Tackman, J. M., Tews, J. K. & Harper, A. E. (1990). Dietary disproportions of amino acids in the rat: effects on food intake, plasma and brain amino acids and brain serotonin. Journal of Nutrition 120, 521531.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
79Tanner, J. M. (1979). A concise history of growth studies from Buffon to Boas. In Human Growth: a Comprehensive Treatise, vol. 3, Neurobiology and Nutrition, pp. 515593 [ F, Faulkner and J. M., Tanner, editors]. New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
80Tirapegui, J. O., Yahya, Z. A. H., Bates, P. C. & Millward, D. J. (1994). Dietary energy, glucocorticoids, and the regulation of long bone and muscle growth in the rat. Clinical Science 87, 599606.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
81Uhe, A. M., Collier, G. R. & O'Dea, K. (1992). A comparison of the effects of beef, chicken and fish protein on satiety and amino acid profiles in lean male subjects. Journal of Nutrition 122, 467472.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
82Viteri, F. E. & Torun, B. (1981). Nutrition physical activity and growth. In The Biology of Normal Growth, pp. 265273 [ M., Ritze et al. , editors]. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
83Waterlow, J. C. (1992). Protein Energy Malnutrition. London: Edward Arnold.Google Scholar
84Waterlow, J. C., Garlick, P. J. & Millward, D. J. (1978). Protein Turnover in Mammalian Tissues and in the Whole Body. Amsterdam: Elsevier/North-Holland Biomedical Press.Google Scholar
85Webster, A. J. F. (1993). Energy partitioning, tissue growth and appetite control. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 52, 6976.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
86Winchester, P. K. & Gonyea, W. J. (1992). Regional injury and the terminal differentiation of satellite cells in stretched avian slow tonic muscle. Developmental Biology 151, 459472.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
87Yahya, Z. A. H., Bates, P. C. & Millward, D. J. (1990). Responses to protein deficiency of plasma and tissue insulin-like growth factor-1 levels and proteoglycan synthesis rates in rat skeletal muscle and bone. Journal of Endocrinology 127, 497503.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
88Yahya, Z. A. H., & Millward, D. J. (1994). Dietary protein and the regulation of long bone and muscle growth in the rat. Clinical Science 87, 213224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
89Yahya, Z. A. H., Tirapegui, J. O., Bates, P. C. & Millward, D. J. (1994). Influence of dietary protein, energy and corticosteroids on protein turnover, proteoglycan sulphation and growth of long bone and skeletal muscle in the rat. Clinical Science 87, 607618.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
90Yan, Z., Biggs, R. B. & Booth, F. W. (1993). Insulin-like growth factor immunoreactivity increases in muscle after acute eccentric contractions. Journal of Applied Physiology 74, 410414.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed