Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-995ml Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-28T14:01:24.351Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

An Examination of Commercial Spelling Programs for Upper Primary Level students

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 November 2012

Barbara Mullock*
Affiliation:
The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
*
Correspondence: Barbara Mullock, School of Languages and Linguistics, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2025, Australia. E-mail: b.mullock@unsw.edu.au; bam2011barb@hotmail.com

Abstract

The acquisition of spelling skills in English presents, for a substantial number of children, a significant challenge. Spelling skills do not automatically transfer from reading skills, and while many teachers are aware of the need to develop a separate word study program to assist with spelling development, time and confidence factors often result in their turning to commercial spelling programs for assistance. But to what extent do such programs reflect what contemporary research tells us about how spelling skills are acquired? The current study uses criteria developed from Cramer and Cipielewski (1995) to analyse 9 Australian commercial spelling programs designed for use in primary Years 4 to 6. The programs are examined with special attention to the needs of weaker spellers. The study found that although the majority of the programs contained treatment of basic morphological aspects of spelling, only 2 of the programs presented material designed to develop understanding of the more complex sound–symbol relationships of the English spelling system. Treatment of more complex morphemic principles was weak in almost all programs, and there was only limited coverage of compound words, homonyms, contractions, and words that are easily confused.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © The Authors 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aylward, R. (1979). The Spell of Words. Brookvale, Australia: Educational Supplies.Google Scholar
Barwick, J., & Barwick, J. (1998). Spellworks. St. Leonards, Australia: Horwitz.Google Scholar
Bear, D.R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S., & Johnston, F. (1996). Words their way: Word study for phonics, vocabulary, and spelling. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.Google Scholar
Beers, C.S., & Beers, J.W. (1992). Children's spelling of English inflectional morphology. In Templeton, S. & Bear, D.R. (Eds.), Development of orthographic knowledge and the foundations of literacy: A memorial festschrift for Edmund H. Henderson (pp. 232252). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Beers, J. (1995). Spelling development: Stages and strategies. In Spelling research & information: An overview of research and practices (pp. 5366). Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman and Company.Google Scholar
Bourassa, D., & Treiman, R. (2001). Spelling development and disability. In Snowling, M. & Hulme, C. (Eds.), Science of reading: A handbook (pp. 172181). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Bradley, L. (1981). The organisation of motor patterns for spelling: An effective remedial strategy for backward readers. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 23, 8391. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.1981.tb08449.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brundson, R., Coltheart, M., & Nickels, L. (2005). Treatment of irregular word spelling in developmental surface dysgraphia. Cognitive Neural Psychology, 22, 231251.Google Scholar
Carlisle, J.F. (1987). The use of morphological knowledge in spelling derived forms by learning-disabled and normal students. Annals of Dyslexia, 37, 90108. doi:10.1007/BF02648061CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carney, E. (1994). A survey of English spelling. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Clutterbuck, P. (1998). Excel Spelling and Vocabulary. Glebe, Australia: Pascal Press.Google Scholar
Coltheart, M., & Prior, M. (2007). Learning to read in Australia. Canberra: The Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia.Google Scholar
Cramer, R.L., & Cipielewski, J. (1995). Research in action: A study of spelling errors in 18,599 written compositions of children in grades 1–8. In Spelling research & information: An overview of research and practices (pp. 1140). Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman and Company.Google Scholar
Darch, C., Kim, S., Johnson, J.H., & James, J. (2000). The strategic spelling skills of students with learning disabilities: The results of two studies. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 27, 1527.Google Scholar
Darch, C., & Simpson, R.G. (1990). Effectiveness of visual imagery versus rule-based strategies in teaching spelling to learning disabled students. Research in Rural Education, 7, 6170.Google Scholar
Devonshire, V., & Fluck, M. (2010). Spelling development: Fine-tuning strategy-use and capitalising on the connections between words. Learning and Instruction, 20, 361371. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.02.025CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dixon, M., & Kaminska, Z. (1997). Is it misspelled or is it mispelled? The influence of fresh orthographic information on spelling. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 9, 483498. doi:10.1023/A:1007955314533CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ehri, L. (1989). The development of spelling knowledge and its role in reading acquisition and reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22, 356365.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ehri, L. (1992). Review and commentary: Stages of spelling development. In Templeton, S. & Bear, D.R. (Eds.), Development of orthographic knowledge and the foundations of literacy: A memorial festschrift for Edmund H. Henderson (pp. 307332). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Ehri, L.C., & Roberts, K.T. (1979). Do beginners learn printed words better in contexts or isolation? Child Development, 50, 675685. doi:10.2307/1128932CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Excel Basic Skills English and Mathematics. (1998). Glebe, Australia: Pascal Press.Google Scholar
Fielding-Barnsley, R. (2010). Australian pre-service teachers' knowledge of phonemic awareness and phonics in the process of learning to read. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 15, 99110. doi:10.1080/19404150903524606CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fischer, F.W., Shankweiler, D., & Liberman, I.Y. (1985). Spelling proficiency and sensitivity to word structure. Journal of Memory and Language, 24, 423441. doi:10.1016/0749-596X(85)90038-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foorman, B.R., & Francis, D.J. (1994). Exploring connections among reading, spelling, and phonetic segmentation during first grade. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 6, 6591. doi:10.1007/BF01027278CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Francis, K., & Francis, R. (2003). Spelling Now. Southbank, Australia: Thomson Learning.Google Scholar
Frank, A.R., Wacker, D.P., Keith, T.Z., & Sagen, T.K. (1987). Effectiveness of a spelling study package for learning disabled students. Learning Disabilities Research, 2, 110118.Google Scholar
Fresch, M.J. (2007). Teachers' concerns about spelling instruction: A national survey. Reading Psychology, 28, 301330. doi:10.1080/02702710701545510CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frith, U. (1985). Beneath the surface of developmental dyslexia. In Patterson, K., Coltheart, M., & Marshall, J. (Eds.), Surface dyslexia (pp. 301330). London, UK: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Fromkin, V., Redman, R., Hyams, N., Collins, P., Amberber, M., & Harvey, M. (2009). An introduction to language (6th ed.). South Melbourne, Australia: Cengage Learning.Google Scholar
Graham, S. (1999). Handwriting and spelling instruction for students with learning disabilities: A review. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22, 7898. doi:10.2307/1511268CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, S. (2000). Should the natural learning approach replace spelling instruction? Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 235247. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.92.2.235CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, S., Morphy, P., Harris, K.R., Fink-Chorzempa, B., Saddler, B., Moran, S., & Mason, L. (2008). Teaching spelling in the primary grades: A national survey of instructional practices and adaptations. American Educational Research Journal, 45, 796825. doi:10.3102/0002831208319722CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, S., & Weintraub, N. (1996). A review of handwriting research: Progress and prospects from 1980 to 1994. Educational Psychology Review, 8, 787. doi:10.1007/BF01761831CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammond, L. (2004). Getting the balance right: Effective classroom spelling instruction. Australian Journal of Learning Disabilities, 9, 1118. doi:10.1080/19404150409546769CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanna, P.R., Hanna, J.S., Hodges, R.E., & Rudorf, E.H. (1966). Phoneme-grapheme correspondences as cues to spelling improvement. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, U.S. Office of Education.Google Scholar
Howard, P. (2001). Spelling for Fun. Warners Bay, Australia: Nightingale Press.Google Scholar
Howard, P. (2002). Basic Skills Language and Mathematics (Rev. ed.). Rose Bay, Australia: Jim Coroneos Publications.Google Scholar
Invernizzi, M., Abouzeid, M., & Gill, J.T. (1994). Using students' invented spellings as a guide for spelling instruction that emphasizes word study. The Elementary School Journal, 95, 155167. doi:10.1086/461796CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, F.R. (2001). Exploring classroom teachers' spelling practices and beliefs. Reading Research and Instruction, 40, 143156. doi:10.1080/19388070109558339CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kessler, B. (2009). Statistical learning of conditional orthographic correspondences. Writing Systems Research, 1, 1934. doi:10.1093/wsr/wsp004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kessler, B., & Treiman, R. (2003). Is English spelling chaotic? Misconceptions concerning its irregularity. Reading Psychology, 24, 267289. doi:10.1080/02702710390227228CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohnen, S., & Nickels, L. (2010). Teaching children with developmental spelling difficulties in a one-on-one context. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 34, 3660. doi:10.1375/ajse.34.1.36CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohnen, S., Nickels, L., & Castles, A. (2009). Assessing spelling skills and strategies: A critique of available resources. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 14, 113150. doi:10.1080/19404150902783450CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, V.L., & Pegler, A.M. (1982). Effects on spelling of training children to read. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 37, 311322. doi:10.1901/jeab.1982.37-311CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lennox, C., & Siegel, L.S. (1998). Phonological and orthographic processes in good and poor spellers. In Hulme, C. & Joshi, R.M. (Eds.), Reading and spelling: Development and disorders (pp. 395404). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Loomer, B.M., Fitzsimmons, R.J., & Strege, M.G. (1990). Teacher's edition: Spelling, research, and practice. The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA: Useful Learning.Google Scholar
Loudon, W., & Rohl, M. (2006). “Too many theories and not enough instruction”: Perceptions of preservice teacher education preparation for literacy teaching in Australian schools. Literacy, 40, 6678. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9345.2006.00440.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lovett, M.W., & Steinbach, K.A. (1997). The effectiveness of remedial programs for reading disabled children of different ages: Does the benefit decrease for older children? Learning Disability Quarterly, 20, 189210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahar, N.E., & Richdale, A.L. (2008). Primary teachers' linguistic knowledge and perceptions of early literacy instruction. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 13, 1737. doi:10.1080/19404150802093703CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNaughton, D., Hughes, C.A., & Clark, K. (1994). Spelling instruction for students with learning disabilities: Implications for research and practice. Learning Disability Quarterly, 17, 169185. doi:10.2307/1511072CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meehan, R., & Hammond, L. (2006). Walking the talk: Western Australian teachers' beliefs about early reading and spelling instruction and their knowledge of metalinguistics. Australian Journal of Learning Disabilities, 11, 1724. doi:10.1080/19404150609546804CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moats, L.C. (1995). Spelling: Development, disability and instruction. Baltimore, MD: York.Google Scholar
Morris, D., Blanton, L., Blanton, W.E., & Perney, J. (1995). Spelling instruction and achievement in six classrooms. The Elementary School Journal, 96, 145162. doi:10.1086/461819CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ralston, M., & Robinson, G. (1997). Spelling strategies and metacognitive awareness in skilled and unskilled spellers. Australian Journal of Learning Disabilities, 2, 1223. doi:10.1080/19404159709546544CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rittle-Johnson, B., & Siegler, R.S. (1999). Learning to spell: Variability, choice and change in children's strategy use. Child Development, 70, 332348.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rose, J. (1999). Practise Your Spelling Skills (2nd ed.). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson.Google Scholar
Schlagal, B. (1992). Patterns of orthographic development into the intermediate grades. In Templeton, S. & Bear, D.R. (Eds.), Development of orthographic knowledge and the foundations of literacy: A memorial festschrift for Edmund H. Henderson (pp. 3253). Hilllsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Schlagal, B. (2002). Classroom spelling instruction: History, research, and practice. Reading Research and Instruction, 42, 4457. doi:10.1080/19388070209558380CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schlagal, B. (2007). Best practices in spelling and handwriting. In Graham, S., MacArthur, C.A., & Fitzgerald, J. (Eds.), Best practices in writing instruction (pp. 179201). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Steffler, D.J. (2001). Implicit cognition and spelling development. Developmental Review, 21, 168204. doi:10.1006/drev.2000.0517CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stevens, K.B., & Schuster, J.W. (1987). Effects of a constant time delay procedure on the written spelling performance of a learning disabled student. Learning Disability Quarterly, 10, 916. doi:10.2307/1510750CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Templeton, S. (1991). Teaching and learning the English spelling system: Reconceptualizing method and purpose. The Elementary School Journal, 92, 185201. doi:10.1086/461687CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Templeton, S. (1992). Theory, nature, and pedagogy of higher-order orthographic developments in older students. In Templeton, S. & Bear, D.R. (Eds.), Development of orthographic knowledge and the foundations of literacy: A memorial festschrift for Edmund H. Henderson (pp. 253279). Hilllsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Templeton, S., & Morris, D. (1999). Questions teachers ask about spelling. Reading Research Quarterly, 34, 102112. doi:10.1598/RRQ.34.1.6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treiman, R. (1993). Learning to spell. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Treiman, R. (1998). Beginning to spell in English. In Hulme, C. & Joshi, R.M. (Eds.), Reading and spelling: Development and disorders (pp. 371393). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Venezky, R.L. (1970). The structure of English orthography. The Hague, the Netherlands: Mouton. doi:10.1515/9783110804478CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vukovic, R.K., & Siegel, L.S. (2006). The double-deficit hypothesis: A comprehensive analysis of the evidence. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 2547. doi:10.1177/00222194060390010401CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wanzek, J., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Swanson, E.A., Edmonds, M., & Kim, A.-H. (2006). A synthesis of spelling and reading interventions and their effects on the spelling outcomes of students with LD. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 528543. doi:10.1177/00222194060390060501CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weeks, S., Brooks, P., & Everatt, J. (2002). Differences in learning to spell: Relationships between cognitive profiles and learning responses to teaching methods. Educational and Child Psychology, 19 (4), 4762.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weintraub, N., & Graham, S. (1998). Writing legibly and quickly: A study of children's ability to adjust their handwriting to meet common classroom demands. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 13, 146152.Google Scholar
Westwood, P. (2005). Spelling: Approaches to teaching and assessment (2nd ed.). Camberwell, Vic.: Australian Council for Educational Research.Google Scholar
Westwood, P. (2008a). What teachers need to know about spelling. Camberwell, Vic.: Australian Council for Educational Research.Google Scholar
Westwood, P. (2008b). Revisiting issues in spelling instruction: A literature review 1995–2007. Special Education Perspectives, 17 (1), 3348.Google Scholar
Wheat, L.B. (1932). Four spelling rules. The Elementary School Journal, 32, 697706. doi:10.1086/456796CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilde, S. (1990). Spelling textbooks: A critical review. Linguistics and Education, 2, 259280. doi:10.1016/S0898-5898(05)80022-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woods, A.J. (2002). Spelling Matters (2nd ed.). Melbourne, Australia: Pearson.Google Scholar