Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-m8qmq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-18T22:34:45.892Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

ASTRONOMY, RITUAL, AND THE INTERPRETATION OF MAYA “E-GROUP” ARCHITECTURAL ASSEMBLAGES

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 June 2006

James J. Aimers  and
Prudence M. Rice
James J. Aimers
Affiliation:
Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 31-34 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, United Kingdom
Prudence M. Rice
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, MC 4502, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

E-group architectural assemblages, constructed and used for more than a millennium in the Maya Lowlands, are among the most distinctive and enduring forms in Mesoamerican monumental architecture. Since the 1920s, E-groups have been thought to mark the solstices and equinoxes, but more recent investigations have shown that these alignments were rarely accurate. We argue that accurate solar alignment was probably only a minor element, and primarily an early one, of a larger set of metaphorically linked design considerations that included concepts of sacred geography, ritual performance in reference to yearly solar and agricultural cycles, and longer cycles of time, especially katuns, that played a role in Lowland Maya geopolitical structuring.

Type
Research Article
Information
Ancient Mesoamerica , Volume 17 , Issue 1 , January 2006 , pp. 79 - 96
Copyright
© 2006 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Acevedo, Renaldo, Bernard Hermes, and Zoila Calderón 1996 Ixtinto: Rescate arqueológico. In IX simposio de investigaciones arqueológicas en Guatemala, 1995, edited by Juan Pedro Laporte and Héctor L. Escobedo, pp. 233–251. Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología and Asociación Tikal, Guatemala City.
Aimers, James John 1993 An Hermeneutic Analysis of the Maya E-Group Complex. M.A. thesis, Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough, Canada.
Andrews, George F. 1975 Maya Cities: Placemaking and Urbanization. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Andrews IV, E.W., and E.W. Andrews V 1980 Excavations at Dzibilchaltun, Yucatan. Publication 48. Middle American Research Institute, New Orleans.
Aveni, Anthony 1980 Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Aveni, Anthony 2001 Skywatchers (rev. ed. of Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico). University of Texas Press, Austin.
Aveni, Anthony 2003 Archaeoastronomy in the Ancient Americas. Journal of Archaeological Research 11(2):149–191.Google Scholar
Aveni, Anthony F., and Horst Hartung 1986 Maya City Planning and the Calendar. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 76(1).Google Scholar
Aveni, Anthony F., and Horst Hartung 1989 Uaxactun, Guatemala, Group E and Similar Assemblages: An Archaeoastronomical Reconsideration. In World Archaeoastronomy, edited by Anthony F. Aveni, pp. 441–461. Cambridge University Press.
Aveni, Anthony F., Anne S. Dowd, and Benjamin Vining 2003 Maya Calendar Reform? Evidence from Orientations of Specialized Architectural Assemblages. Latin American Antiquity 14(2):159–178.Google Scholar
Aveni, Anthony F., Sharon L. Gibbs, and Horst Hartung 1975 The Caracol Tower at Chichen Itza: An Ancient Astronomical Observatory? Science 188(4192): 977–985.Google Scholar
Awe, Jaime, and Mark Campbell 1988 Site Core Investigations at Cahal Pech, Cayo District Belize: Preliminary Report of the 1988 Season. Unpublished manuscript, Trent University, Peterborough.
Braswell, Geoffrey E. (editor) 2003 The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Blom, Frans 1924 Report on the Preliminary Work at Uaxactun, Guatemala. Carnegie Institution of Washington Yearbook 23:217–219.Google Scholar
Broda, Johanna 1982 Astronomy, Cosmovision, and Ideology in Pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica. In Ethnoastronomy and Archaeoastronomy in the American Tropics, edited by Gary Urton and Anthony F. Aveni, pp. 81–110. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Publication 385.
Broda, Johanna 1989 Significant Dates of the Mesoamerican Agricultural Calendar and Archaeoastronomy (conference paper abstract). In World Archaeoastronomy, edited by Anthony F. Aveni, p. 494. Cambridge University Press.
Brotherston, Gordon 1982 Astronomical Norms in Mesoamerican Ritual and Time-Reckoning. In Archaeoastronomy in the New World, edited by Anthony F. Aveni, pp. 109–143. Cambridge University Press.
Cabrera Castro, Rubén 2000 Teotihuacan Cultural Traditions Transmitted into the Postclassic, According to Recent Excavations, translated by Scott Sessions. In Mesoamerica's Classic Heritage: From Teotihuacan to the Aztecs, edited by David Carrasco, Lindsay Jones, and Scott Sessions, pp. 195–218. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.
Carlson, John B. 1974 Astronomical Investigations and Site Orientation Influences at Palenque. In Second Palenque Round Table, Part III, edited by Merle Greene Robertson, pp. 107–117. Robert Louis Stevenson School, Pebble Beach, CA.
Carlson, John B. 1981 A Geomantic Model for the Interpretation of Mesoamerican Sites: An Essay in Cross-Cultural Comparison. In Mesoamerican Sites and World-Views, edited by Elizabeth P. Benson, pp. 143–215. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.
Chase, Arlen F. 1983 A Contextual Consideration of the Tayasal-Paxcaman Zone, El Peten, Guatemala. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Chase, Arlen F. 1985 Archaeology in the Maya Heartland. Archaeology 38(1):32–39.Google Scholar
Chase, Arlen F., and Diane Z. Chase 1983 Intensive Gardening among the Late Classic Maya: A Possible Example at Ixtutz, Guatemala. Expedition 25(3):2–11.Google Scholar
Chase, Arlen F., and Diane Z. Chase 1987 Investigations at the Classic Maya City of Caracol, Belize: 1985–1987. Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute Monograph 3. Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, San Francisco.
Chase, Arlen F., and Diane Z. Chase 1995 External Impetus, Internal Synthesis, and Standardization: E-Group Assemblages and the Crystallization of Classic Maya Society in the Southern Lowlands. In The Emergence of Maya Civilization: The Transition from the Preclassic to the Early Classic, edited by Nikolai Grube, pp. 87–101. Acta Mesoamericana, 8. Verlag Anton Saurwein.
Christie, Jessica Joyce 1995 Maya Period Ending Ceremonies: Restarting Time and Rebuilding the Cosmos to Assure Survival of the Maya World. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin.
Clark, John E., and Richard D. Hansen 2001 The Architecture of Early Kingship: Comparative Perspectives on the Origins of the Maya Royal Court. In Royal Courts of the Ancient Maya, Volume 2: Data and Case Studies, edited by Takeshi Inomata and Stephen D. Houston, pp. 1–45. Westview Press, Boulder, CO.
Coe, Michael D. 1988 Ideology of the Maya Tomb. In Maya Iconography, edited by Elizabeth P. Benson and Gillett G. Griffin, pp. 222–235. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Coe, William R. 1965 Tikal: Ten Years of Study of a Maya Ruin in the Lowlands of Guatemala. Expedition 8(1):3–56.Google Scholar
Coggins, Clemency C. 1980 The Shape of Time: Some Political Implications of a Four-Part Figure. American Antiquity 45(4):727–739.Google Scholar
Coggins, Clemency C. 1983 The Stucco Decoration and Architectural Assemblage of Structure 1-sub, Dzibilchaltún, Yucatan, Mexico. Middle American Research Institute Publication No. 49. Tulane University, New Orleans.
Coggins, Clemency C., and R. David Drucker 1988 The Observatory at Dzibilchaltún. In New Directions in American Archaeoastronomy, edited by Anthony F. Aveni, pp. 17–56. Proceedings of the 46th International Congress of Americanists. BAR International Series 454. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.
Cohodas, Marvin 1975 The Symbolism and Ritual Function of the Middle Classic Ball Game in Mesoamerica. American Indian Quarterly 11(2):99–130.Google Scholar
Cohodas, Marvin 1980 Radial Pyramids and Radial Associated Assemblages of the Central Maya Area. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 39(3):208–223.Google Scholar
Cohodas, Marvin 1985 Public Architecture of the Maya Lowlands. Cuadernos de Arquitectura Mesoamericana 6:51–68.Google Scholar
Corzo, Lilian A., Marco Tulio Alvarado, and Juan Pedro Laporte 1998 Ucanal: Un sitio asociado a la cuenca media del Río Mopan. In XI simposio de investigaciones arqueológicas en Guatemala, 1997, edited by Juan Pedro Laporte and Héctor L. Escobedo, pp. 191–214. Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología and Asociación Tikal, Guatemala City.
Cowgill, George L. 2003 Teotihuacan and Early Classic Interaction: A Perspective from Outside the Maya Region. In The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction, edited by Geoffrey E. Braswell, pp. 315–335. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Culbert, T. Patrick 1991 Polities in the Northeast Peten, Guatemala. In Classic Maya Political History, edited by T. Patrick Culbert, pp. 128–145. Cambridge University Press.
Demarest, Arthur A., and Antonia E. Foias 1993 Mesoamerican Horizons and the Cultural Transformations of Maya Civilization. In Latin American Horizons, edited by Don S. Rice, pp. 147–191. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.
Digby, Adrian 1974 Crossed Trapezes: A Pre-Columbian Astronomical Instrument. In Mesoamerican Archaeology, New Approaches, edited by Norman Hammond, pp. 271–283. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Drucker, Philip 1952 La Venta, Tabasco: A Study of Olmec Ceramics and Art. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 153. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
Drucker, Philip, Robert F. Heizer, and Robert J. Squier 1959 Excavations at La Venta, Tabasco, 1955. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 170. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
Edmonson, Munro S. 1979 Some Postclassic Questions about the Classic Maya. In Tercera Mesa Redonda de Palenque, vol. 4, edited by Merle Green Robertson and Donnan Call Jeffers, pp. 9–18. Pre-Columbian Art Research Center, Palenque, Chiapas, Mexico.
Edmonson, Munro S. 1982 The Ancient Future of the Itza: The Book of Chilam Balam of Tizimin. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Edmonson, Munro S. 1986 Heaven Born Merida and Its Destiny: The Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Fialko, Vilma 1988 Mundo Perdido, Tikal: Un ejemplo de complejos de conmemoración astronómica. Mayab 4:13–21.Google Scholar
Folan, William J., Laraine A. Fletcher, Jacinto May Hau, and Lynda Florey Folan (coordinators) 2001 Las ruinas de Calakmul, Campeche, México: Un lugar central y su paisaje cultural, pp. 37–42. Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, Mexico.
Flower, Philip 1990 Understanding the Universe. West Publishing, New York.
Freidel, David A. 1979 Culture Areas and Interaction Spheres: Contrasting Approaches to the Emergence of Civilization in the Maya Lowlands. American Antiquity 44(1):36–54.Google Scholar
Freidel, David A. 1981 Civilization as a State of Mind: The Cultural Evolution of the Lowland Maya. In The Transition to Statehood in the New World, edited by R.R. Kautz, pp. 188–227. Cambridge University Press.
Freidel, David A., and Linda Schele 1988 Kingship in the Late Preclassic Lowlands: The Instruments and Places of Ritual Power. American Anthropologist 90(3):547–567.Google Scholar
Garber, James F., M. Kathryn Brown, and Christopher J. Hartman 2001 The Early/Middle Formative Kanocha Phase (1200–850 B.C.) at Blackman Eddy, Belize. Available online at: www.famsi.org/reports/00090.
García Cook, Angel 1981 The Historical Importance of Tlaxcala in the Cultural Development of the Central Highlands. In Archaeology, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff, pp. 244–276. Handbook of Middle American Indians, Supplement 1. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Gossen, Gary 1965 Temporal and Spatial Equivalents in Chamula Ritual Symbolism. In Reader in Comparative Religion, edited by William R. Lessa and Evon Z. Vogt, pp. 135–149. Harper and Row, New York.
Graham, Ian 1967 Machaquila. In Archaeological Explorations in El Peten, Guatemala, pp. 51–99. Middle American Research Institute Publication No. 33. Tulane University, New Orleans.
Grazioso Sierra, Liwy, T. Patrick Culbert, Vilma Fialko, and et al. 2001 Arqueología en el Bajo La Justa, El Petén, Guatemala. In XV Simposio de investigaciones arqueológicas en Guatemala, edited by Juan Pedro Laporte and Héctor L. Escobedo, pp. 205–209. Instituto de Antropología e Historia, and Asociación Tikal, Guatemala City.
Grube, Nikolai, and Simon Martin 1998 Deciphering Maya Politics: The Proceedings of the Maya Hieroglyphic Workshop, March 14–15, 1998, edited by Phil Wanyerka. Department of Art, University of Texas, Austin.
Guidoni, Enrico 1975 Primitive Architecture, translated by R.E. Wolf. Electra/Rizzoli, New York.
Guthe, C.E. 1921–1922 Report on the Excavations at Tayasal. Carnegie Institution of Washington Yearbook no. 20:364–368.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman 1982 Ancient Maya Civilization. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ.
Hammond, Norman 1985 Nohmul: A Prehistoric Maya Community in Belize. Excavations 1973–1983, 2 vols. BAR International Series 250(i). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.
Hansen, Richard D. 1991 The Maya Rediscovered: The Road to Nakbe. Natural History 91(5):8–14.Google Scholar
Hansen, Richard D. 1992 El proceso cultural de Nakbe y el área del Petén nor-central: Las épocas tempranas. In V simposio de investigaciones arqueológicas en Guatemala, 1991, edited by Juan Pedro Laporte, Héctor L. Escobedo, and Sandra Villagrán de Brady, pp. 81–96. Instituto de Antropología e Historia and Asociación Tikal.
Hansen, Richard D. 2000 The First Cities—The Beginnings of Urbanization and State Formation in the Maya Lowlands. In Maya: Divine Kings of the Rain Forest, edited by Nikolai Grube, pp. 51–65. Könemann, Cologne.
Hartung, Horst 1981 Monte Alban in the Valley of Oaxaca. In Mesoamerican Sites and World Views, edited by Elizabeth P. Benson, pp. 41–69. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.
Healy, Paul F. 1990 Excavations at Pacbitun, Belize: Preliminary Report on the 1986 and 1987 Investigations. Journal of Field Archaeology 17:247–262.Google Scholar
Hellmuth, Nicholas M. 1971 Report on the First Season, Explorations and Excavations at Yaxha, El Peten, Guatemala, 1970. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Anthropology, Yale University, New Haven.
Hersey, George 1976 Pythagorean Palaces: Magic and Architecture in the Italian Renaissance. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.
Hester, Thomas R., and J.D. Eaton 1982 Archaeology at Colha, Belize. Center for Archaeological Research, University of Texas, San Antonio, and Centro Studi e Richerche Ligabue, Venice.
Hester, Thomas R., J.D. Eaton, and H.J. Shafer 1980 The Colha Project, Second Season 1980 Interim Report. Center for Archaeological Research, University of Texas, and Centro Studi e Recherche Ligabue, Venezia.
Heyden, Doris 1981 Caves, Gods, and Myths. In Mesoamerican Sites and World Views, edited by Elizabeth P. Benson, pp. 1–19. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.
Heyden, Doris, and Paul Gendrop 1980 Pre-Columbian Architecture of Mesoamerica. Rizzoli, New York.
Howard, Michael C. 1986 Contemporary Cultural Anthropology, 2d ed. Little, Brown, Boston.
Hugh-Jones, C. 1979 From the Milk River. Cambridge University Press.
Hunt, Eva 1977 The Transformation of the Hummingbird. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.
Kubler, George 1962 The Art and Architecture of Ancient America. Penguin Books, Harmondsworth.
Laporte, Juan Pedro 1993 Architecture and Social Change in Late Classic Maya Society: The Evidence from Mundo Perdido, Tikal. In Lowland Maya Civilization in the Eighth Century A.D., edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and John S. Henderson, pp. 299–320. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.
Laporte, Juan Pedro 1996 La cuenca del Río Mopán-Belice: Una sub-región cultural de las tierras bajas maya central. In IX simposio de investigaciones arqueológicas en Guatemala, 1995, edited by Juan Pedro Laporte and Héctor L. Escobedo, pp. 253–279. Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología and Asociación Tikal, Guatemala City.
Laporte, Juan Pedro 2003 Architectural Aspects of Interaction between Tikal and Teotihuacan during the Early Classic Period. In The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction, edited by Geoffrey E. Braswell, pp. 199–216. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Laporte, Juan Pedro, and Vilma Fialko 1990 New Perspectives on Old Problems: Dynastic References for the Early Classic at Tikal. In Vision and Revision in Maya Studies, edited by Flora S. Clancy and Peter D. Harrison, pp. 33–66. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Laporte, Juan Pedro, and Vilma Fialko 1995 Un reëncuentro con Mundo Perdido, Tikal, Guatemala. Ancient Mesoamerica 6:41–94.Google Scholar
Laporte, Juan Pedro, and Héctor E. Mejía 2002 Ucanal: Una ciudad del Río Mopán en Petén, Guatemala. U tz'ib 1(2):1–71.Google Scholar
Lee Jr., Thomas A. 1989 Chiapas and the Olmec. In Regional Perspectives on the Olmec, edited by Robert J. Sharer and David C. Grove, pp. 198–226. Cambridge University Press, New York.
León-Portilla, Miguel 1988 Time and Reality in the Thought of the Maya, 2d ed. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Lou P., Brenda 1997 Chalpate, análisis del asentamiento y orientación de un centro satélite de Tikal. In X simposio de investigaciones arqueológicas en Guatemala, 1996, edited by Juan Pedro Laporte and Héctor L. Escobedo, pp. 373–379. Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología and Asociación Tikal, Guatemala City.
Lowe, Gareth 1977 The Mixe-Zoque as Competing Neighbors of the Early Lowland Maya. In The Origins of Maya Civilization, edited by Richard E.W. Adams, pp. 197–248. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Marcus, Joyce 1987 The Inscriptions of Calakmul: Royal Marriage at a Maya City in Campeche, Mexico. Museum of Anthropology, Technical Report 21. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Matheny, Raymond T. 1987 El Mirador: An Early Maya Metropolis Uncovered. National Geographic (September):317–339.
Mejía Amaya, Héctor E., Heidy Quezada, and Jorge E. Chocón 1998 Un límite político territorial en el sureste de Petén. In XI simposio de investigaciones arqueológicas en Guatemala, 1997, edited by Juan Pedro Laporte and Héctor L. Escobedo, pp. 171–190. Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología and Asociación Tikal, Guatemala City.
Miller, Arthur G. 1986 Maya Rulers of Time/Los soberanos mayas del tiempo. University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Miller, Mary Ellen, and Stephen D. Houston 1987 Stairways and Ballcourt Glyphs: New Perspectives on the Classic Maya Ballgame. RES 14:47–66.Google Scholar
Miller, Mary Ellen, and Karl Taube 1993 An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya. Thames and Hudson, New York.
Monaghan, John 1990 Sacrifice, Death, and the Origins of Agriculture in the Codex Vienna. American Antiquity 55(3):559–569.Google Scholar
Morales, Paulino I. 1998 Asentamiento prehispánico en el Naranjo-Frontera, La Libertad, Petén. In XI simposio de investigaciones arqueológicas en Guatemala, 1997, edited by Juan Pedro Laporte and Héctor L. Escobedo, pp. 123–134. Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología and Asociación Tikal, Guatemala City.
Morante López, Rubén B. 1996 Los observatorios astronómicos subterráneos: ¿Un invento Teotihuacano? Revista mexicana de estudios antropológicos 42:159–172.Google Scholar
Morley, Sylvanus G., and George Brainerd 1956 The Ancient Maya. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.
Pasztory, Esther 1972 The Historical and Religious Significance of the Middle Classic Ballgame. In Religión en Mesoamerica, XII Mesa Redonda of Sociedad Mexicana de Antropología, edited by Jaime Lituak King and Noemi Castillo Tejero, pp. 441–455. Mexico City.
Pasztory, Esther 1978 Artistic Traditions of the Middle Classic Period. In Middle Classic Mesoamerica A.D. 400–700, edited by Esther Pasztory, pp. 108–142. Columbia University Press, New York.
Pincemin, Sonia, Joyce Marcus, Lynda Florey Folan, William J. Folan, Maria del Rosario Domínguez Carrasco, and Abel Moralez López. 1998 Extending the Calakmul Dynasty Back in Time: A New Stela from a Maya Capital in Campeche, Mexico. Latin American Antiquity 9(4):310–327.Google Scholar
Rathje, William 1972 Trade Models and Archaeological Problems: The Classic Maya and Their E-Group Complex. In XL Congresso Internazionale degli Americanisti, vol. 4, pp. 223–235. Rome.
Rathje, William 1978 Trade Models and Archaeological Problems: Classic Maya Examples. In Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, edited by Thomas A. Lee Jr. and Carlos Navarette, pp. 147–175. Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation, No. 40. Provo, UT.
Redfield, Robert, and Antonio Villa Rojas 1934 Chan Kom: A Maya Village. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication 448. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.
Redfield, Robert, and W. Lloyd Warner 1940 Cultural Anthropology and Modern Agriculture. In Farmers in a Changing World. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Reilly III, F. Kent 1999 Mountains of Creation and Underworld Portals: The Ritual Function of Olmec Architecture at La Venta, Tabasco. In Mesoamerican Architecture as a Cultural Symbol, edited by Jeff Karl Kowalski, pp. 14–39. Oxford University Press, New York.
Rice, Prudence M. 2004 Maya Political Science: Time, Astronomy, and the Cosmos. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Ricketson Jr., Oliver 1928a Astronomical Observatories in the Maya Area. Geographical Review 18:215–225.Google Scholar
Ricketson Jr., Oliver 1928b Notes on Two Maya Astronomic Observatories. American Anthropologist 30:434–444.Google Scholar
Ricketson, Oliver G., and Edith B. Ricketson 1937 Uaxactun, Guatemala, Group E, 1926–1931. Part 1: The Excavations; Part II: The Artifacts. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication No. 477. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.
Roys, Ralph L. 1967 (1933) The Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Ruppert, Karl J. 1977 (1940) A Special Assemblage of Maya Structures. In The Maya and Their Neighbors: Essays on Middle American Anthropology and Archaeology, edited by Clarence L. Hay, Ralph L. Linton, Samuel K. Lothrop, Harry L. Shapiro, and George C. Valliant, pp. 222–231. Dover Publications, New York.
Schele, Linda 1984 Human Sacrifice among the Classic Maya. In Ritual Human Sacrifice in Mesoamerica, edited by Elizabeth H. Boone, pp. 7–48. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.
Schele, Linda, and David Freidel 1990 A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya. William Morrow, New York.
Schele, Linda, and Mary Miller 1986 The Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art. Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, TX.
Scully, Vincent 1991 Architecture: The Natural and the Manmade. St. Martin's Press, New York.
Soustelle, Jacques 1984 Ritual Human Sacrifice in Mesoamerica: An Introduction. In Ritual Human Sacrifice in Mesoamerica, edited by Elizabeth H. Boone, pp. 1–5. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.
šprajc, Ivan 2000 Astronomical Alignments at Teotihuacan. Latin American Antiquity 11(4):403–415.Google Scholar
Tedlock, Barbara 1992 Time and the Highland Maya, rev. ed. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Tedlock, Dennis 1985 Popol Vuh: The Definitive Edition of the Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life and the Glories of Gods and Kings. Simon and Schuster, New York.
Thomas, Julian 1990 Monuments from the Inside: The Case of the Irish Megalithic Tombs. World Archaeology 22(2):168–178.Google Scholar
Thompson, J. Eric S. 1973 Maya Rulers of the Classic Period and the Divine Right of Kings. In The Iconography of Middle American Sculpture, edited by Gordon R. Willey. pp. 52–71. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
Tichy, Franz 1981 Order and Relationship of Space and Time in Mesoamerica: Myth or Reality? In Mesoamerican Sites and World-Views, edited by Elizabeth P. Benson, pp. 217–245. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.
Tourtellot, Gair, and Jason J. González 2004 The Last Hurrah: Continuity and Transformation at Seibal. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition, and Transformation, edited by Arthur A. Demarest, Prudence M. Rice, and Don S. Rice, pp. 60–82. University of Colorado Press, Boulder.
Townsend, Richard Fraser 1982 Pyramid and Sacred Mountain. In Ethnoastronomy and Archaeoastronomy in the American Tropics, edited by Anthony F. Aveni and Gary Urton, pp. 37–62. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Publication No. 385. New York Academy of Sciences, New York.
Tozzer, Alfred M. 1913 A Preliminary Study of the Ruins of Nakum, Guatemala. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 5, No. 3. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Tozzer, Alfred M. 1941 Landa's Relación de las cosas de Yucatan: A Translation. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, No. 28. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Turner, Harold W. 1979 From Temple to Meeting House: The Phenomenology and Theology of Places of Worship. Mouton, The Hague.
Valdés, Juan Antonio 1997 El Proyecto Miraflores II dentro del marco preclásico en Kaminaljuyu. In X simposio de investigaciones arqueológicas en Guatemala 1996, edited by Juan Pedro Laporte and Héctor L. Escobedo, pp. 81–91. Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología and Asociación Tikal, Guatemala City.
Valdés, Juan Antonio, and Federico Fahsen 1995 The Reigning Dynasty of Uaxactun during the Early Classic. Ancient Mesoamerica 6(2):197–219.Google Scholar
Velásquez, Juan Luis 1992 Excavaciones en el Complejo 75 de Nakbe. In V simposio de investigaciones arqueológicas en Guatemala 1991, edited by Juan Pedro Laporte, Héctor L. Escobedo A., and Sandra Villagrán de Brady, pp. 97–102. Instituto de Antropología e Historia and Asociación Tikal, Guatemala City.
Vogt, Evon Z. 1981 Some Aspects of the Sacred Geography of Highland Chiapas. In Mesoamerican Sites and World Views, edited by Elizabeth P. Benson, pp. 119–142. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.
Wheatley, P. 1971 The Pivot of the Four Quarters: A Preliminary Enquiry into the Origins and Character of the Ancient Chinese City. Aldine, Chicago.
Wright, Lori E. 1994 The Sacrifice of the Earth? Diet, Health, and Inequality in the Pasión Maya Lowlands. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.