Between November 1998 and October 2000, freshwater snails were collected monthly from the highveld and lowveld areas of Zimbabwe to determine the occurrence of larval trematodes. A total of 13,789 snails, representing ten species, were collected from 21 sites and 916 (6.6%) harboured patent trematode infections. Eight morphologically distinguishable types of cercariae were identified. Bulinus tropicus had the highest overall prevalence of infection (13.1%). The echinostome was the most common type of cercaria recovered, contributing 38.2% of all infections. Schistosoma cercariae were recovered mainly from the highveld and comprised 8.0% of all infections. Amphistome cercariae contributed 37.6% of all infections and were recorded from both the highveld and lowveld areas with a peak prevalence occurring during the post-rainy period (March–May). The main intermediate host for amphistomes was B. tropicus. Infections in B. globosus, B. forskalii and Biomphalaria pfeifferi with amphistome cercariae are new records for Zimbabwe.

The chronology of the life cycle of Trichostrongylus retortaeformis (Zeder, 1800) (Nematoda, Trichostrongyloidea) is studied in its natural host Oryctolagus cuniculus. The free living period lasted 5 days at 24°C. Worm-free rabbits were each infected per os with T. retortaeformis larvae. Rabbits were killed at 12 h post-infection (p.i.) and every day from one day to 13 days p.i. By 12 h p.i., all the larvae were exsheathed and in the small intestine. The third moult occurred between 3 and 5 days p.i. and the last moult between 4 and 7 days p.i. The prepatent period lasted 12 to 13 days. The patent period lasted five and a half months. The four known life cycles of species of Trichostrongylus in ruminants were compared with that of T. retortaeformis. No significant difference was found except in the duration of the prepatent period. These similarities in the life cycles confirm the previously formulated hypotheses on the relationship between the parasites of the two host groups ().

The parasitic fauna of two fish species, namely gill-netted samples of 652 Oreochromis leucostictus and 448 Tilapia zillii from Lake Naivasha and Oloidien Bay was investigated during the period from the end of October 1995 to September 1996. Five larval helminth parasites were recovered including the nematode, Contracaecum sp., the acanthocephalan Polyacanthorhynchus kenyensis, the digenetic trematode, Clinostomum sp. and two cestodes, Amirthalingamia sp. and Cyclustera sp. Both prevalence and intensity of the infection of these helminths increased in larger sized fish, whereas male fish were more heavily infected than females. No seasonality in infection level were observed. The health status of both fish species remained unaffected, although O. leucostictus from Oloidien Bay which harboured heavy infections of Contracaecum exhibited stuntedness and the lack of fatty deposits around the digestive caecum.

The monoclonal antibody IACR-CCNj.3d has previously been used to isolate a gene (gp-col-8) with strong similarity to cuticular collagen from a mixed stage Globodera pallida cDNA expression library. The antibody has also been shown to label specifically the amphidial canal of pre-parasitic second stage juveniles (J2) of several plant nematode species without any reactivity on the cuticular surface, indicating that this protein is either not present or is inaccessible on the cuticular surface. This paper investigates the cross-reactivity of Mab IACR-CCNj.3d with Meloidogyne arenaria and the localization of the putative collagen protein on the cuticular surface of parasitic stages in planta and on the cuticular surface of juveniles inside eggs. The antigen was shown to be present in all developmental stages of the two species of potato cyst nematodes and M. arenaria. The antibody bound strongly to the amphidial canal and hypodermis of pre-parasitic J2 and adult females. The antigen was present on the cuticular surface of the sausage-shaped J2 in planta and of first stage juveniles (J1) inside the eggs. The presence of collagen on the surface of the cuticle of moulting stages of plant parasitic nematodes has been observed for the first time. It is clear that this protein has a role in the construction of the cuticle of the first stage juveniles and parasitic second stage juveniles, during moulting inside the eggs and in the root tissue, respectively.

Two studies were conducted to investigate the growth and activity of the fungus, Duddingtonia flagrans, within cattle faecal pats. Artificial faecal pats were constructed with the centre separated from the outer layer by a nylon mesh. Eight treatments were tested, by varying the presence/absence of Cooperia oncophora eggs and fungal spores within each layer. With parasite eggs in the centre layer, a statistically lower recovery of larvae was observed compared to both pats with parasite eggs in the periphery and pats with parasite eggs throughout both layers. Regardless of location within the pat, if co-located with the parasite egg, D. flagrans was found to be effective in trapping developing larvae. The reduction in recovery of larvae from pats with parasite eggs and fungal spores in the centre was found to be significantly higher than when parasite eggs were in the centre and fungal spores in the periphery. In the second study, pats were made up in two treatments: pats containing fungal spores and C. oncophora eggs (fungus) and pats containing C. oncophora eggs (control). The pats were incubated at low or high humidity. Ten pats were used in a cross over where five pats incubated at low humidity for 7 weeks were removed, water added and then incubated at a high humidity for 1 week. Another five pats were incubated at a high humidity for 7 weeks, aerated and incubated at a low humidity for 1 week. There was no apparent growth of fungus in faecal pats incubated at a high humidity and less than 20% of larvae were recovered. The growth of D. flagrans was observed in faecal pats incubated at a low humidity, but a corresponding reduction in the percentage recovery of larvae did not occur, except in week 4. No statistical difference between fungal and control pats was seen in the change over pats. Nematophagous activity was assessed throughout the study and observed in the first 4 weeks within the pats containing fungus.

Schistosoma species have traditionally been arranged in groups based on egg morphology, geographical origins, and the genus or family of snail intermediate host. One of these groups is the ‘S. indicum group’ comprising species from Asia that use pulmonate snails as intermediate hosts. DNA sequences were obtained from the four members of this group (S. indicum, S. spindale, S. nasale and S. incognitum) to provide information concerning their phylogenetic relationships with other Asian and African species and species groups. The sequences came from the second internal transcribed spacer (ITS2) of the ribosomal gene repeat, part of the 28S ribosomal RNA gene (28S), and part of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (CO1) gene. Tree analyses using both distance and parsimony methods showed the S. indicum group not to be monophyletic. Schistosoma indicum, S. spindale and S. nasale were clustered among African schistosomes, while S. incognitum was placed as sister to the African species (using ITS2 and 28S nucleotide sequences and CO1 amino acid sequences), or as sister to all other species of Schistosoma (CO1 nucleotide sequences). Based on the present molecular data, a scenario for the evolution of the S. indicum group is discussed.

Much interest has centred recently on the role of adaptive trade-offs between the immune system and other components of life history in determining resistance and parasite intensities among hosts. Steroid hormones, particularly glucocorticoids and sex steroids, provide a plausible mechanism for mediating such trade-offs. A basic assumption behind the hypothesis, however, is that steroid activity will generally correlate with reduced resistance and thus greater parasite intensities. Here, we present some findings from a field study of bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) in which we have looked at associations between parasite intensities, anatomical and morphometric measures relating to endocrine function and life history variation in three local populations inhabiting similar but mutually isolated woodland habitats. In general, sites with greater parasite intensities were those in which male C. glareolus had significantly larger adrenal glands, testes and seminal vesicles for their age and body size. Females also showed a site difference in adrenal gland weight. Some aspects of site-related parasite intensity were associated with asymmetry in adrenal gland weight and hind foot length, which may have reflected developmental effects on glucocorticoid activity.

Tenascin is an extracellular matrix glycoprotein known to be an essential factor for the modulation of reciprocal interactions between the epithelium and mesenchyme during embryogenesis and tumourigenesis. The interactions between the expression of tenascin in the liver of Syrian golden hamster and the development of bile duct cancer in an Opisthorchis viverrini-associated cholangiocarcinoma model were investigated. The tenascin was expressed in connective tissues surrounding the dilated ducts, ductal rims and the stroma of cancers, and strongly in the stroma flame of necrotic cancer nodules. The mRNA signal for tenascin was also recognized in the stroma cells. The potential roles of tenascin as prognostic tumour markers are discussed.

Cathepsin L proteinases (CL1 and CL2), the major components of Fasciola hepatica excretion/secretion products (E/S) are considered potential antigens of a vaccine against fascioliasis. The humoral response elicited by CL1 and CL2 in rats either immunized with the enzymes or infected with F. hepatica has been analysed, examining specific IgE and IgG subclass dynamics. The experiment was continued for 10 weeks and peripheral blood eosinophilia was also determined. Infected rats presented peaks of eosinophilia at weeks 3 and 7 post-infection, while those immunized with CL1 and CL2 were no different from controls. Total IgE in infected rats increased up to week 5, reaching 30 μg -1 in some cases, then decreased slowly and rising again towards the end of the experiment. Determination of specific IgE, carried out in sera previously absorbed with Protein G-Sepharose, reached a peak in infected rats between weeks 2 and 5, depending on the individual. In immunized rats both total and specific IgE levels remained around the pre-immunization values. With regard to the IgG subclass responses to E/S products, in infected rats IgG1 predominated over IgG2a, and the reverse was true in rats immunized with CL1 and CL2 and tested against the respective antigens. In all cases an increase in IgG1 and IgG2a antibody titres was seen, with maximum levels being reached later (weeks 6–7) in infected rats than in immunized ones (weeks 4–5). No IgG2b or IgG2c responses were detected in any of the groups studied.

The effect of dietary cobalt from three different sources on uninfected and Ascaridia galli-infected Hisex chickens, has been studied. The chicken diet was supplemented with 0.06 Co2+ kg-1 food either in the form of two glycine–cobalt compounds or mixed zinc–cobalt basic salt. An excess of dietary cobalt in small doses increases the gain of body weight and decreases host mortality. A greater bioefficiency of cobalt was established in infected chickens. A mathematical model has been used to provide a quantitative interpretation of the observed results. The model solutions of the kinetics of worm numbers and body weight are in a good agreement with experimental data. The model is valid for different degrees of A. galli infections and for treatment with different trace elements. The value of the kinetic parameter, regarded as a phenomenological constant of the host immune response, depends on the degree of infection.

Tetrathyridia of Mesocestoides corti were cultured in vitro in a diphasic medium consisting of a liquid medium (CMRL Sigma) and a thixotropic nutrient gel (Oxoid). Tests demonstrated that a 50% medium/gel mixture produced optimum conditions for the survival and development of tetrathyridia. Established anthelminthic drugs were inoculated into the gel which demonstrated that this system can be used for preliminary anthelminthic drug screening. The development and survival of the tetrathyridia were influenced by the addition of pepsin, trypsin and liver peptone to the culture media. The development and maturation of proglottids were observed in addition to asexual reproduction by the process of budding. Tetrathyridia maintained in vitro and reinfected into both mouse and rat hosts retained their viability.

Four parameters of the intestinal inflammatory response (numbers of mucosal mast cells (MMC) and Paneth cells, villus:crypt ratios and mitotic figures) were measured in mice exposed to varying doses of infective larvae of Trichinella spiralis.The aim of the experiments was to determine whether generation of these components of inflammation required a threshold level of infection and whether, once triggered, inflammation became pan-mucosal. Near maximal MMC and Paneth cell responses were elicited even with infections as low as 35 larvae; changes in villus:crypt ratios and in mitotic indices also occurred at this level of infection, but were progressively greater with increasing levels of infection. In all infected mice, including those infected with 35 larvae, MMC and Paneth cell responses extended over most of the small intestine. These data are interpreted as showing: (i) that the intestinal mucosa is highly responsive to T. spiralis infection; (ii) that once triggered, components of the inflammatory response are amplified by T cell-dependent mechanisms, becoming pan-mucosal; and (iii) that MMC and Paneth cell responses, which require cell division and differentiation, become maximal at a lower infection threshold than changes in the villus:crypt ratio or in mitotic indices, which directly reflect increased rates of division in crypt cells.

Serology (ELISA and immunoblot) using native glycoproteins, affinity purified glycoproteins, and a recombinant antigen is known to be highly specific to Taenia solium cysticercosis in humans and pigs. These techniques were applied for dogs in the highly endemic area of cysticercosis in Papua (Irian Jaya), Indonesia. Analysis of dog sera by both ELISA and immunoblot revealed 7 of 64 dogs were highly positive. Examination of two sero-positive dogs revealed cysticerci of T. solium in the brain and heart of these dogs. Mitochondrial DNA analysis confirmed that they were the same as T. solium previously confirmed from pigs and biopsies from local people from Irian Jaya. It is suggested that the life cycle of T. solium may be completed not only between humans and pigs but also between humans and dogs.

Dictyocaulus capreolus n. sp. recovered from roe deer, Capreolus capreolus and moose, Alces alces in Sweden is described and figured. Morphological studies revealed the new species to be closest to D. eckerti and D. africanus on the basis of mouth shape, all three species having an elongate mouth opening. The other species of the genus, including D. viviparus, all have a circular to oval mouth opening. Dictyocaulus capreolus n. sp. can be distinguished from D. eckerti and D. africanus on the basis of the morphology of the buccal capsule and the bursa. These morphological studies support earlier evidence of the presence of a new species of Dictyocaulus in roe deer and moose that could be distinguished from D. eckerti and D. viviparus using either a PCR-linked hybridization assay or image analysis software to study the dimensions of the buccal capsule.

Brachylaima cribbi is a recently described species of terrestrial trematode that infects mammals and birds with helicid land snails as its first and second intermediate hosts. The adult worm is 2.5–6.0 mm long by 0.5–0.8 mm wide being a long slender cylindrical worm with oral and ventral suckers in the anterior quarter and genital pore in the posterior quarter. Scanning electron microscopy shows that there is a dense covering of tegumental spines at the anterior end which diminishes towards the posterior extremities of the worm. Development of spines was observed in juvenile and mature adult worms. In young worms 1–3 weeks post infection (wpi) spines appear as buds with a serrated edge each having 1–4 spikes per spine. As the worm ages the spines broaden and by 5 wpi the number of spikes per spine increases to an average of 8.1. The serial development of oral sucker papillae in the cercaria, metacercaria and adult worm was observed with the finding of an elongated papilla with a bifurcated tip on the cercaria becoming a shorter and thicker elongated papilla with a large central stoma on the metacercaria. In the adult worm, this papilla becomes dome-shaped with a small central stoma. For some of these papillae a cilium could be seen extended from the central stoma. Other life-cycle stages illustrated were the hatched egg with an extruded egg membrane minus an operculum and a portion of the branched sporocyst dissected from the digestive gland of the land snail Theba pisana showing a terminal birth pore. Scanning electron microscopy morphological features of the adult worm observed for the first time in a Brachylaima were the unarmed cirrus extended from the genital pore with released sperm present and the Laurer's canal opening visible in tegumental folds on the dorsal surface approximately 300 μm posterior to the genital pore.

This communication reports incidental observations on Toxascaris leonina infections in a beagle breeding colony. Regular faecal monitoring demonstrated that T. leonina was endemic in the adult dam population within this colony. Small numbers of T. leonina eggs were also detected in the faeces of weaned pups from eight weeks of age possibly produced by a patent infection. This would mean a pre-patent period for T. leonina of 56 days or less. Worm counts on 10 pups showed that 60% of pups had acquired a T. leonina infection by 12 weeks of age. Since prenatal and lactogenic transmission do not occur and as the pups were kept in an environment which reduced chances of infection with T. leonina and there was no apparent source of paratenic hosts, the source of infection must have been embryonated T. leonina eggs from the whelping environment. These observations on T. leonina demonstrate that, if pups are exposed to an infected environment, patent infections may be seen in a younger age group than is normally associated with T. leonina infections.

Carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy was employed to investigate alterations in hepatic carbohydrate metabolism in Meriones unguiculatus infected with Echinococcus multilocularis. Following portal vein injections of an equimolar mixture of ]#x005B;1,2-13C2]acetate and [3-13C]lactate, perchloric acid extracts of the livers were prepared and NMR spectra obtained. Isotopomer analysis using glutamate resonances in these spectra showed that the relative contributions of endogenous and exogenous substrates to the acetyl-CoA entering the tricarboxylic acid cycle differed significantly between infected and control groups. The mole fraction of acetyl-CoA that was derived from endogenous, unlabelled sources (FU) was 0.50±0.10 in controls compared to 0.34±0.04 in infected animals. However, the fraction of acetyl-CoA derived from [3-13C]lactate (FLL) was larger in livers of infected animals than those from controls with values of 0.27±0.04 and 0.18±0.04, respectively. Similarly, the fraction of acetyl-CoA derived from [1,2-13C2]acetate (FLA) was larger in livers of infected animals compared to those in controls; the fractions were 0.38±0.01 and 0.32±0.07, respectively. The ratio of FLA:FLL was significantly smaller in the infected group with a value of 1.42±0.18 compared to 1.74±0.09 for the controls. These results indicate that alveolar hydatid disease has a pronounced effect on the partitioning of substrates within the pathways of carbohydrate metabolism in the host liver.

A data set on intestinal helminth parasites was collected in the course of an 18 year investigation into the biology of eels in Meelick Bay, Lough Derg, River Shannon. This was used to test two hypotheses relating to the composition and structure of intestinal helminth communities, namely that eels in large rivers do not harbour richer and more diverse communities than those in small rivers but that community composition and structure are more stable over time than in small rivers. The helminth community was species poor, with only six species comprising the component community and a maximum infracommunity richness of three species. The community was overwhelmingly dominated by the acanthocephalan Acanthocephalus lucii, reflecting the importance of its intermediate host Asellus aquaticus in the eels' diet. The remaining helminth species contributed to species richness but made very little contribution to community diversity. Population levels of Acanthocephalus lucii fell and remained low between 1992 and 2000, probably reflecting increased movement of eels from other parts of the lough into Meelick Bay. Diversity values were low, but similar to those reported from other rivers in Britain and Europe. The results provided support for both hypotheses and indicated that in respect of richness, diversity and dominance, the helminth communities of eels in the River Shannon were typical of, and comparable to, those of other large rivers throughout Europe.

Stress response and phosphorylation of heat shock proteins (HSPs) 60, 70 and 90 were studied in Trichinella nativa, T. nelsoni, T. pseudospiralis and T. spiralis larvae at 30-min intervals following exposure to 20, 100 and 200 mM H2O2. There was a time- and dose-dependent differential survival for the infective stage larvae (L1) of these four Trichinella species. Immunoblotting analysis revealed that constitutive Hsp60 and Hsp70, but not Hsp90, from test Trichinella species are constitutively phosphorylated on serine/threonine residues as they converted to forms with increased sodium dodecyl sulphate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS–PAGE) mobility by treatment with alkaline phosphatase. After exposure to H2O2, while there was a time-related occurrence of the three HSPs with decreased SDS–PAGE mobility, these HSPs were insensitive to alkaline phosphatase except in the case of exposure to 20 mM H2O2 for Hsp60 from all Trichinella species and Hsp70 from T. spiralis and T. nelsoni. The synthesis of HSPs forms with decreased SDS–PAGE mobility is a susceptibility signal because the lower concentration of peroxide (20 mM) did not cause a decrease on HSPs SDS–PAGE mobility in T. spiralis and T. nelsoni, the two more resistant selected Trichinella species.

Eight Swedish Red Breed cattle, about 2 months old, were experimentally infected with a Swedish isolate of Dictyocaulus viviparus (Dviv-Se) from cattle and D. capreolus from roe deer. The aims were to determine whether the roe deer lungworm is infective to cattle or if it can induce seroconversion in cattle against D. viviparus as measured with an ELISA. Four calves which were given 500 Dviv-Se infective larvae (L3) each by larval dosing for two successive days developed patent infection between days 23 and 25 post-inoculation (PI). Larval output varied among the calves and during the patent period. However, maximum recovery occurred between 28 and 56 days PI with peak shedding on day 37 PI. Shedding ceased at day 58 PI and adult worms were recovered from one calf at necropsy (day 67 PI). No immature worms were recovered from the lungs at necropsy. Seroconversion was detected on days 35–42 PI. One Dviv-Se infected calf became seronegative on day 67 PI whereas the other calves still remained seropositive during this period. Prepatency and patency periods of D. viviparus and serological findings in this study basically conform to previous studies. Each calf that was infected with 400 L3 of D. capreolus for two successive days, and about 800 L3 of the same species about 8 weeks later, did not develop to patency based on faecal and post-mortem examinations. Consequently, under the conditions of this study, D. capreolus was not infective to cattle. Two of the four calves that were infected with L3 from roe deer were challenged with L3 cultured from faeces of the Dviv-Se-infected calves. This infection did not develop to patency. Whether this was due to cross-protection as a result of the prior priming with L3 from roe deer is not clear. However, if it is so, it opens up the possibility of using D. capreolus L3 for preventing bovine dictyocauliasis.