The reproductive biology and ecology of the European pond turtle Emys orbicularis is little known, and available information was previously mainly anecdotal. Morphological data on E. orbicularis are now well documented in most of the known distribution area. Body size in northern populations tends to be larger than in southern populations. There are also indications that clutch size may be larger in northern than in southern European pond turtle populations. Clutch size and reproductive status of a central Italy population were detected by radiography and palpation, respectively, and comparative data were obtained by direct count of intact nest eggs. Reproductive females averaged 13.9 cm and rarely exceeded 15.5 cm carapace length. They produced a clutch size of six, the same number found in intact nests. Nest egg-size averaged 32 mm in length. Egg number was positively associated with female body size, and especially with carapace height.

Shell shape in gastropods is generated by the spiral path of shell material laid down at the aperture. Many aspects of shape will therefore be associated. Such associations may indicate constraints, limiting the range of variation seen in populations as a response to different environmental pressures. Associations of shell variables were studied using the sibling species Littorina saxatilis and Littorina arcana. The same closely associated subset of three variables was found in both species, related to the maintenance of a constant aperture shape, despite variation in overall morphology. These closely associated variables describe similar variation in the two species. The less closely associated variables may contribute more to inter-specific differences.

We investigated camps of black Pteropus alecto and red flying-fox P. scapulatus in the early dry season of 1992 (April–June) in Kakadu National Park, a World Heritage Area in the wet-dry tropics of north Australia. Fifteen camp-sites were located and two types of camps were defined: main camps containing > 1000 animals and a significant component of young (P. alecto, n = 4; P. scapulatus, n = 2) and satellite camps of lesser size (P. alecto, n = 9; P. scapulatus, n = 3). The two species shared three camp-sites. All camps were in dense riparian vegetation (fresh and saltwater mangroves, paperbark forests, closed forest and bamboo), overhanging or adjacent to water inhabited by crocodiles, that would provide a protected microclimate and protection from predators. All camps were within 5 km or less of one or more unoccupied sites that were indistinguishable in landform or vegetation from camp-sites. In Kakadu NP riparian vegetation makes up about 6% of the park and is a non-limiting resource for flying-fox roosting. We propose that the initial colonization of camp-sites is essentially random when roost vegetation is non-limiting and that factors such as predation by humans, cyclones and fires determine the persistence and size of camps at the local level. At a broader temporal and spatial scale, interaction between the seasonal availability of forage and reproductive cycles is known to influence the location, size and structure of Pteropus camps. We advance the hypothesis that colonies of flying-foxes could be moved to new camp-sites, a strategy that would facilitate resolution of the frequently problematic management of these animals.

The ability of some mammals to forage on vines or terminal branches depends upon their grasping extremities. This study tests the functional link between use of small-diameter supports and grasping abilities by comparing hand and foot proportions in didelphid marsupials. Metapodials and phalanges were measured for the hands and feet of six didelphid taxa characterized by different patterns of substrate use. Comparisons of hand and foot proportions demonstrate that Marmosa and Caluromys, didelphids that rely on vines or terminal branches, possess more prehensile extremities than Monodelphis, Didelphis, and Philander, which travel and feed mainly on the ground. Moreover, the proportions of the hand and foot of Marmosa and Caluromys are more similar to those of cheirogaleid primates than those of other didelphids. These morphological data corroborate the suggestion that the use of branches of small diameter was an important factor in the development of prehensile hands and feet in early primates.

The abundance of mink, otter, and polecat may be inferred from records of their scats, and the feeding biology of the species is often studied by analysis of skeletal remains and other hard parts in faeces. However, in some situations it is difficult to distinguish between faeces from these three mustelid species. A method is described for assigning faeces to these three mustelid species, based on analysis of DNA extracted from their scats. Mustelid-specific primers were developed for PCR amplification of a part of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene, and two restriction enzymes were found to detect species-specific sequence variation. Analysis of DNA from different faecal samples showed that the results were reproducible and that the approach provided an efficient method of species identification.

There are two microchiropteran bat species in New Zealand: the long-tailed bat Chalinolobus tuberculatus and the short-tailed bat Mystacina tuberculata. Both species coexist on Little Barrier Island in the Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand. In this study we examined the diet of M. tuberculata, and the activity levels of both bat species associated with Metrosideros excelsa, a native flowering plant and potential nectar source, on Little Barrier Island. Between November 1994 and February 1996, M. tuberculata were caught in mist-nets, and their faecal pellets were collected for later dietary analysis. In addition, pollen samples were collected from the fur of bats caught during December 1995 and January 1996. Faecal analysis showed that M. tuberculata on Little Barrier Island exhibits a high degree of omnivory, with its diet comprising flying and non-flying arthropods, and also pollen and other plant material. During December 1995 and January 1996, the activity levels of both bat species associated with flowering and non-flowering M. excelsa trees were investigated by recording bat echolocation calls with automatic detecting and recording units. Significantly higher numbers of M. tuberculata echolocation calls were recorded near flowering M. excelsa trees than near non-flowering ones, whereas the numbers of C. tuberculatus calls did not differ significantly between flowering and non-flowering trees. These results contribute further to the existing evidence for nectarivory in M. tuberculata.

A primate community was studied in a fluvial tropical rain forest island, in the northernmost part of Brazilian Amazonia, in the State of Roraima. Density and biomass were determined, and the differences between the forest types were assessed. The line-transect method was used from the east towards the centre of the island. No previous studies had been carried out in this remote undisturbed area. Density and biomass varied between the forest types, as well as between frugivorous primates; the smaller-bodied species were more abundant in the forest that was richer in fruiting trees, while they were absent from a monodominant forest. The folivorous, or partly folivorous, primates were abundant in those forests with less fruiting trees. The abundance of the primates in the different forest types was shown to be a function of food availability.

Faecal analysis was used to study the diet of great bustards in north-west Spain on a monthly basis for 1 year. After correction for differential digestibility, the diet composition by dry weight varied from 48.4% green plant material, 40.9% invertebrates and 10.6% seeds in August, to consisting almost completely of green plant material between December and March. At least 65 plant species were represented in the green plant material, but most occurred rarely and the bulk of this portion of the diet consisted of alfalfa. Eight invertebrate orders were detected in the faeces, of which Coleoptera, Hymenoptera and Orthoptera were most important by numbers. From August to November when seeds were important by dry weight, wheat and barley seeds were found in more faecal pellets than other species. Estimates of use and abundance were obtained to evaluate diet selection in the green plant material and invertebrate components. Alfalfa was strongly selected throughout the year, but grasses were used less often than expected. Coleoptera were always eaten in greater numbers than expected, Orthoptera were used either in proportion to abundance or less often than expected, and Hymenoptera less often in May, more often in September and November, and as expected at other times. The results support the suggestion that increasing alfalfa cultivation would be a useful management tool for maintaining endangered great bustard populations, but further work on the cost-effectiveness of this option is needed.

Bone mineralization and bone geometry at femoral midshaft were analysed for 33 muskoxen Ovibos moschatus ranging in age from 3 weeks to 4.5 years and in body mass from 9 to 215 kg, to assess changing mechanical properties associated with postnatal ontogeny. Analysis of the mineral density of bone (BMD) indicates little or no change in femoral mineralization until after 4 months of age. Between 4 and 6 months of age BMD increases markedly, and complete mineralization occurs by about 18 months of age. Femoral length (L) and bone strength (as measured by Z, the section modulus) scale negatively allometric with body mass (L ∞ M0.26 and Z ∞ M0.88) indicating that neonate muskoxen have longer and stronger femora for their body size than do older animals. When the neonate data were excluded, however, bone length and bone strength regressed against body mass did not differ significantly from isometry (L ∞ M0.32 and Z ∞ M1.03), implying that different growth trajectories characterize postnatal ontogeny before and after 4 months of age. As a consequence of the timing of ontogenetic changes in bone mineralization and cross-sectional geometry, safety factors calculated for the femur (derived from estimates of peak bending stress and fracture strength) are largest and smallest in neonates and 4-month-old calves, respectively. It is hypothesized that increased bone mineralization and accompanying diaphyseal stiffness after 4 months of age are necessary to maintain structural integrity of the femur.

In a recent paper Raxworthy & Nussbaum (1995) included the Madagascan dwarf chameleons Brookesia peyrierasiand B. tuberculata in the synonymy of B. minima, regarding known hemipenial differences between B. tuberculata and B. peyrierasi as artefacts. Our studies demonstrate that the hemipenis description of B. tuberculata by Brygoo & Domergue (1975) was largely correct and referred to unusual but real structures. The enormous differences in the hemipenis morphology of B. tuberculata (hemipenes of six specimens examined) and B. peyrierasi (hemipenes of five specimens examined) strongly suggest that they are not conspecific. Furthermore, morphological differences in the arrangement of head crests and expression of supraocular spines were noted between these two taxa and B. minima. The differentiation of the three taxa is furthermore corroborated by both univariate and multivariate analyses of morphometric data. We therefore propose to consider Brookesia minima, B. peyrierasi, and B. tuberculata as distinct species. This conclusion corroborates the validity of biogeographic regions as suggested from the analysis of distribution patterns of other Brookesia species.

The courtship and mating behaviour of three empidid flies Empis trigramma, E. tessellata and E. opaca are described. In E. trigramma the male appears to use his complex genitalia to introduce a liquid ‘gift’ into the female's abdomen during copulation. This ‘gift’ is subsequently discharged and imbibed by the female. Such male ‘gifts’ may constitute a direct investment in their offspring, as females do not seem to acquire significant nutritional input from other sources. Males of E. opaca and E. tessellata present a ‘gift’ to the female, in the form of a dead insect, before mating takes place. Females will not mate with males which do not present a gift. Gifts presented during the period of sexual activity also appear to make a substantial contribution to female ovarian development. Some males seek to ‘cheat’ by presenting substitute gifts in the form of the fluff-bearing seeds of willows. In E. opaca such ‘cheats’ enjoyed a low rate of reproductive success, compared with males presenting food gifts. ‘Cheating’ appears to be an alternative mating tactic for males of this species.

Seasonal changes in the species composition and fibre content of plant fragments in the rumen and the gross anatomy of the gastrointestinal tract were investigated in Svalbard reindeer Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus in western parts of Spitsbergen (Nordenskiöld Land (NL), 78°N), where the tundra vegetation is relatively abundant, and on the island of Nordaustlandet ((NA) 81°N) where, in the polar desert, plants are scarce. Reindeer were killed while grazing on NL in autumn (n = 19) and in winter (n = 10) and on NA in summer (n = 10) and in winter (n = 3). Rumen contents included mainly mosses and grasses in specimens from NL and mainly Saxifraga spp. in specimens from NA. The plant cell wall content of the dry organic matter in the rumen-reticulum (RR) ranged from 55% to 77% and from 43% to 57% in NL and NA specimens, respectively, and did not vary between seasons. In autumn, the wet weight of the contents of the RR ranged from 13% to 20% of body mass (BM) in females on NL and from 14% to 24% of BM in adult reindeer in winter. On NA, the wet weight of the contents of the RR in adult animals ranged from 15% to 20% of BM in summer and from 15% to 17% of BM in winter in NA. The ratio of the wet weight of the contents of the distal fermentation chamber (DFC) to the wet weight of the contents of the RR was 1:8 in females in autumn, compared to 1:6–1:7 in adult animals on NL in winter. The ratio of the wet weight of the DFC to the wet weight of the RR ranged between 1:8–1:10 in summer, compared to 1:7 and 1:8 in winter. There were no significant differences in the size of plant particles in the RR contents in females from the two areas in any season, indicating that ruminal plant particle size was not influenced by the concentration of plant cell walls in the rumen contents. We conclude that the degree of filling of the gastrointestinal tract of these reindeer was therefore principally a function of plant fibre chemistry. Svalbard reindeer are adaptable intermediate feeders but they have, nevertheless, developed a large DFC similar to that of concentrate selectors.

Mammalian cervical vertebrae 6 and 7 and thoracic vertebra 1 possess many distinguishing characteristics. In the giraffe, bone morphology, muscle origins and insertions, as well as the location of the brachial plexus (described as many osteological and some soft tissue characters) are identical to those in other mammals but are all displaced posteriorly by one vertebra. There are two exceptions to these observations: the pre-sacral vertebral count is unchanged when compared with that in the okapi and C7 supports the first rib. Thus, one vertebra has been added in the neck of the giraffe between cervical 2 and 6, and some type of structural blending has occurred in the region of the first rib. The junction of the giraffe neck with the thorax is unusual and results in a protruding forelimb. It is possible that the unusual position of the neck relates to balancing of a cantilevered neck and head upon a relatively slight body. Characteristic drinking postures may have also influenced the observed anatomical modifications.

Swimming is the most important escape mechanism in lestid damselflies. The effect of lamellae autotomy and sexual size dimorphism on startle-response performance was studied experimentally in larvae of the lestid damselfly Lestes sponsa. In contrast with the prediction of McNeill (1960) that lamellae loss would not affect swimming speed in fast swimmers such as Lestes larvae, swimming performance decreased in a quadratic way with the removal of subsequent lamellae. Lamellae autotomy therefore will considerably reduce the probability of escape from a predator. Larger larvae swim faster than smaller ones of the same instar. This may contribute to a higher survival of larger larvae compared with smaller ones when confronted with both conspecific and heterospecific predators. Despite larvae showing sexual size dimorphism, with females being larger, no difference in swimming speed between the sexes was found.

Some cave-dwelling bat species such as Myotis myotis now also roost in buildings in parts of their range. I studied the effects of roost temperature and colony size on reproductive success of colonies of M. myotis located in buildings. Temperatures in attics fluctuated considerably and altered the thermal conditions at the roost during the breeding season. Inter-colony variation was recorded with respect to factors indicating reproductive success (number, growth, and mortality of juveniles until fledging). However, over-winter survival varied more between years than between colonies. Colony size did not influence development or mortality of juveniles. High average roost temperatures favoured development of juveniles but did not influence mortality. Unlike the situation in caves, large colony sizes are not advantageous in buildings