The ‘Tundra Conference’, held in Edmonton, Alberta, in 1969 focussed public attention on the need for strong conservation measures in northern regions at a time when the extent and potential impact of non-renewable resource exploration was becoming readily apparent. A number of contributions were concerned with ‘what has happened and what is happening to specific tundra areas and what should be done and what is being done to prevent further degradation of the land’ (Fuller and Kevan, 1970). The Canadian government responded by making what amounted to a major shift in its northern lands policy. To a system of land management concerned principally with the administration of surface and sub-surface rights, concomitant with vigorous economic development, the government added a managed use component—the protection of the land surface through the regulation of resource exploration activity (Naysmith, 1970). The ‘Tundra Conference’ marked the beginning of a decade of public debate on land management and the development of a strong, regulatory regime.

Shipping on the Kara Sea section of the Soviet Northern Sea Route—to and from the mouth of the Yenisey river from the west—had been established on a regular, indeed routine, basis by the 1931 navigation season, when 16 freighters took part (Belov, 1959, p 379). At the other end of the sea route, however, the situation was radically different. Between 1923 and 1931 the mouth of the Kolyma had been served each season by only one, occasionally two, of the freighters Stavropol', Kolyma and Leytenant Shmidt; without icebreaker escort, these vessels would fight their way through the ice of the Chukchi Sea and Proliv Longa to the mouth of the Kolyma (Belov, 1959, p 216–56, p 385–403). The 1932 season saw a dramatic change.

The need to investigate and understand the nature of changes in abundance of economically important marine living resources has been widely recognized. They may be naturally occurring fluctuations, cycles or undirectional processes, or changes in response to artificial influences such as pollution or commercial harvesting. As direct investigation of status and population structure of some of these resources can often prove difficult, or incompatible with continuing exploitation, attention has also focussed on the identification and study of more convenient species which may be used as indices of environmental change.

Independent of latitude, scattered populations all over the world need specially designed health and social services with much higher per capita costs than in densely populated parts of the world. This is particularly true of the Arctic region with its harsh environmental conditions and constraints apply. Indeed, it is even more important to establish the nature of numerical highly individual native cultures. In spite of its northerly position, Svalbard (77–80°N) has a relatively mild climate which offers an environment less inhospitable than might be expected at this latitude. The climate, especially on the main island, Spitsbergen, is influenced by an extreme tail of the North Atlantic Drift which keeps the waters of the west and north coasts open for half the year. Extreme Arctic temperatures are rare. Spitsbergen's temperature fluctuates by about 20°C, whereas in castern Siberia the range can be three times as great. The annual average temperature on the west coast is −5°C, seldom falling below −30°C. July is usually around +5°C with an occasional maximum of +20°C. Therefore, the health problems often associated with extremely cold climates are not common in Svalbard.

Five main British Antarctic Survey stations were occupied throughout the year. These were Faraday and Halley (the two geophysical observatories), Signy (the main biological station), Grytviken (a multi-disciplinary sub-Antarctic station and centre for the Offshore Biological Programme) and Rothera (the centre for earth sciences programmes). During the 1978 winter, routine programmes were maintained by 69 men who also made preparations for the forthcoming summer season. The two BAS ships, RRS John Biscoe and RRS Bransfield, with assistance from two Twin Otter aircraft relieved the stations, as usual, and assisted summer field workers. With the early recall of John Biscoe to undergo a major refit, invaluable support was also given by HMS Endurance, especially in the Trinity Peninsula area. Apart from Rothera, relief was completed by the end of January 1979 and, in marked contrast to some years, Halley was reached without difficulty. Persistent sea ice late into the season in the southern part of the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula meant that Rothera could not be reached by Bransfield until mid-February. However, the season saw the completion of the new Rothera station, some major rebuilding at Faraday (originally constructed in 1954) and the installation of a new ionospherics laboratory at Halley. As with the design of the 1973 Halley station, the Rothera complex has aroused considerable international interest.