The problem of entrepreneurship has been one of the central interests of economic theorists since the industrial revolution. Discussions of the entrepreneur in such theory tended to a large extent to focus upon the basis of entrepreneurship. This argument is typified by Schumpeter's criticism of Marx's handling of the problem of primitive accumulation; Schumpeter argues against the rejection by Marx of superior intelligence and energy as explanatory factors in entrepreneurial success.

The consolidation of China did not come immediately with China's unification. It was not fully accomplished until the middle of the Former (Western) Han. The monolithic2 nature of the political powers and a group of local elite3 were then forming. And the bureaucracy, becoming much elaborated during this era, served to link the two. The elite group functioned, on the one hand as the reservoir of candidates to officialdom, and on the other hand, as the leading element with education, prestige, and often wealth, in the community. Based on these concepts, this paper ventures to present the formation of the local elite group through the changing social base of political power during Western Han.

On December 14, 1821 the rebelliously faithful partisans of Louis XVIII, quand meme, finally assumed the office to which their uncontaminated past and heavenly justice entitled them. The power that had at last been gathered into the hands of an ultra ministry resided most of all in the apparatus of the centralized administrative state so often criticized by its new masters. This paper will examine the role and functions of the prefect as the most important local police official and political agent of the ministry at a time when the national administrative machine was operated with authentic Napoleonic rigor by former advocates of decentralization and local autonomies.

All major Swiss cities are located north of the Alps. Their development can be understood best as part of the development of the North European cities—those of Germany, Flanders and France—and as part of the communal movement as it developed in those areas. Yet the cities that eventually became Swiss are those that accepted more of the characteristic institutions of Italian city-states than did the rest, and it is this acceptance of certain Italian practices—particularly the creation of a rural territory and thus eventually of a territorial city-state—that made those cities into city Cantons, able to take part in the formation of Switzerland.

“We seek a man, not money. Wellnigh every Christian region sendeth us money, but no land sendeth to us a prince. Therefore, we ask a prince that needeth money, not money that needeth a prince.” These words of the Patriarch of Jerusalem to King Henry II of England in April, 1185, reflect one of the chronic predicaments of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem throughout its entire history. By a “prince”, of course, the Patriarch meant an army, namely, manpower. Two years later, the collapse and surrender of most fortresses after the battle of Hittin was clearly a result of a grave manpower deficiency. Fortified cities did not usually fall overnight just because a large army was annihilated in the field, unless there was no one left to defend them. A city like Jerusalem, for example, could certainly have shown effective resistance if more than two knights had been left there for its defense.

The major metropolis in almost every newly industrializing nation is not a single unified city but, in fact, two quite different cities, physically juxtaposed but architecturally and socially distinct. Many observers have noted this in non-western countries throughout the world. These dual cities have usually been a legacy from the colonial past and, while increasing national autonomy and “nativization” are tending slowly to blend the two patterns, many generations may be required before the bifurcations drawn in the nineteenth century have been erased.

Janet Abu-Lughod has indeed performed a service to students of urbanization in her genuinely illuminating and exceptionally readable article on the evolution of Cairo's European “transplant” up to the 20th century. The article must be evaluated in terms of the case study it was intended to be, but it may be in order to add some remarks on the types of phenomena illustrated by this specific case.

The theory, practice and origin of sacral kingship have provided a source of lively controversy ever since enthusiasm for the ancient history of the Near East was first kindled in the early nineteenth century by the expedition of Napoleon to Egypt, but the discussion has been more fruitful following the publication of the pioneer anthropological work The Golden Bough, which suggested new lines of approach. It is now generally accepted that, when incipient communities larger than the clan or family group came into existence, a priest or warchief would emerge set apart to some extent from the people, and regarded as possessing supernatural powers of magic through his contact with the elemental forces or deities believed to surround human life on every side. Such beliefs were too widespread and durable for it to be possible to seek a common geographical area of origin.