The effects of food quality, breed type and sex (ram and ewe) on lamb growth and carcass composition, and their changes throughout growth, were measured. The three breed types were Scottish Blackface (B; no. = 24), Suffolk (S; no. = 28) and their reciprocal crosses (X; no. 33). The lambs had free access to a nutritionally non-limiting food, H, or a bulky food, L. Each lamb was scanned using X-ray computed tomography to measure the weights of fat, lean and bone in the carcass at three degrees of maturity (0.30,0.45 and 0.65) in live weight. Live weight and food intake data were recorded weekly. Average daily gains in live weight (ADG) and carcass tissues, intake (ADI) and efficiency (EFF = ADG/ADI) were calculated for each lamb between degrees of maturity. Gompertz and Spillman functions were used to investigate relationships between weight and both time and cumulative food intake.

There was a breed by food interaction for fat and lean proportions (P < 0.05). Only on H was there a breed difference (P < 0.05) with S having less fat and more lean than either B or X, which did not differ from each other (P > 0.1). On food L there were no breed effects (P > 0.1). Across breeds, sexes and stages of maturity, food L caused lambs to have 0.810 as much fat and 1.063 as much lean compared with H (P < 0.001). There were breed by food interactions for ADG (P < 0.05) and EFF (P < 0.01). ADG on L was 0.72 of that on H for S, as compared with 0.79 for B and X. EFF on L was 0.463 of that on H for S, as compared with 0.586 for B and X. These were such that S was more sensitive to food effects on growth. The Gompertz and Spillman functions described growth well.

The purpose of this study was to assess the deposition of fat, protein and energy during the growth period of lambs. Male and female lambs (no. = 54 of each) were fattened (three feeding levels) and slaughtered at various body weights (BW): 18, 30, 45, and 55 kg. Based on the method of the comparative slaughter technique the total body of each animal was analysed. From the data of empty-body gain, fat, protein and energy deposition in the different fattening periods was calculated.

The male lambs showed at all body weights tested and in all feeding level groups a lower daily fat deposition and a higher daily protein deposition compared with the female lambs. The deposition of fat increased in both genders with increasing body weight. The amount of increase differed between the three feeding levels. The male lambs showed at all body weights and in all feeding level groups a higher daily gain in body weight but a lower daily deposition of energy compared with the female lambs. However, for the latter, the gender difference rarely reached statistical significance. Parallel to the daily deposition of fat the daily deposition of energy increased in both genders with increasing body weight.

Based on the deposition of fat and protein during the growth period of the lambs the body composition was estimated by allometric equations. The equations showed a consistent pattern of protein concentration falling and fat concentration rising with increasing empty body weight. Compared with the literature a higher protein and lower fat concentration in empty body gain was predicted.

Most animal growth models contain an explicit growth function. It determines the pattern of growth over the lifetime of the animal and defines an upper limit to growth rate (the potential). The criterion of the ‘goodness-of-fit’ to one or more sets of data is frequently used to select a suitable growth function. Alternative criteria are described here that can be used to choose between forms that describe potential growth. Of the functions reviewed only a few fulfilled all of the proposed criteria. Of these the Logistic and Gompertz functions were favoured because of an economy of parameters and their ability to describe relative growth rate as a simple function of size. The Logistic function was rejected on the grounds of its numerical consequences for growth in pigs over a wide range of degrees of maturity, leaving the Gompertz function to be tested for its ability to make sensible predictions of potential growth. Pre-natal growth data, assumed to occur under non-limiting conditions as long as the mother is not subjected to extremely adverse nutritional conditions or incidence of infection, were used to estimate the values of the two Gompertz function parameters-the growth coefficient and the initial condition-given an estimate of mature size. The values were comparable with literature estimates based on post-natal growth and predictions of growth rate over a wide range of degree of maturity were thus sensible. On these grounds, and because it uses few parameters all with biological meaning, the Gompertz function is proposed as a suitable descriptor of potential growth.

Four diets were arranged using a 2 ✕ 2 factorial design with two levels of lignocellulose, a high ‘HF’ or a low level ‘LF’ (acid-detergent fibre (ADF) = 191 v. 155 g/kg), combined with two levels of starch replacing 50 g/kg of digestible fibre (DF = hemicelluloses + pectins), a high starch (low DF) ‘HS’ or a low starch (high DF) level ‘LS’ (starch = 193 v. 123 g/kg). Two trials were conducted to measure digestive efficiency and rate of passage, respectively. A third trial was performed in a network of six French experimental breeding units to measure growth and digestive health on 507 rabbits per diet. Foods were offered ad libitum from weaning to slaughter.

No significant interactions were detected between the effect of the level of lignocellulose and the effect of starch replacement by DF, on rabbit digestion, performance or digestive health. A proportional increase of overall food digestibility (organic matter (OM) or energy) was observed with the decrease of ADF level. When 50 g/kg of DF was replaced by starch we observed a significant improvement of OM and energy digestibility ( + 0·03 units). The whole-tract mean retention time of particles was 21 h. It was significantly longer with a lower ADF level ( + 5·4 h for LF v. HF diets), and it tended to increase when DF was substituted by starch ( + 2·2 h for HS v. LS diets).

Between weaning and slaughter, food intake was mainly affected by the ADF level (139 v. 130 g/day respectively for HF and LF diets) and to a lesser extent by the replacement of DF by starch (136·2 v. 133·4 g/day, respectively for LS and HS diets). The weight gain was only slightly higher for high starch (low DF) diets ( +1 g/day) without an effect of the ADF level.

Between weaning and slaughter, morbidity and mortality rates (from acute diarrhoea) were significantly reduced with high-fibre diets (-6 and -4 units respectively), while the replacement of DF by starch had no significant effect.

Due to the structure of the placenta in the horse (epitheliochorial) and the as yet un-activated immune system of the foal at birth, the transfer of maternal immunoglobulin G (IgG) is essential in the protection of the young foal until its own immune system develops. The fluidity of intestinal cell membranes may affect the transfer of IgG by receptor mediated endocytosis. In the present experiment we studied the effect of the addition of supplements rich in either alpha-linolenic acid or oleic acid to the diet of the mares starting 1·5 months before foaling and for 1 month after foaling on the passive transfer of IgG and the fatty acid composition of mammary secretions and plasma of foals. Twenty-six mares were allocated to one of two treatment groups (L: linseed supplement, no. = 13 and R: rapeseed supplement, no. = 13) according to date of foaling and live weight to produce two homogeneous groups. Mammary secretions were collected to measure IgG and fatty acid composition. Jugular blood samples were taken from the foals at time 0, 12 h, 24 h, 48 h, 1 week, 2 weeks, 3 weeks and 4 weeks after foaling to measure the concentration of IgG. A subsample of foals was used to measure the IgG absorption coefficient and the plasma fatty acid compositon. There was no effect of dietary treatment on the length of gestation, the production and transfer of IgG. Group L mares produced mammary secretions which were richer in C18: 3 and poorer in C18: 1 than group R mares (P < 0·001). Contrary to expectations the C18: 3 content of blood from foals at birth from both dietary treatments was very low and there was no difference between dietary groups. The percentage of C18: 3 and C18: 2 in fatty acids increased in foal blood only after sucking had occurred, with a difference between dietary groups (L > R). In addition, the percentages of C20: 3 and C20: 4 were higher in the foals at birth than 48 h later (P < 0·001) and at birth they were highest in the R group compared with the L group foals (P < 0·05 and P 0·10, respectively). In conclusion, the attempt to increase the supply of C18: 3 during gestation to foals and to improve the transfer of IgG post partum did not appear to succeed, perhaps because the foal uses C22: 6 (produced from C18: 3) for brain growth.

A visual image analysis (VIA) system provided continuous, automatic collection of size and shape data for a total of 116 pigs slaughtered serially from 25 to 115 kg live weight. Males and females of three types of pigs (‘Meishan’ type, ‘Pietrain’ type, and ‘Landrace’ type) were selected to provide variation in both composition and conformation (the three types being, respectively, ‘fat’, ‘blocky’, and ‘lean’). Results below are presented in this order. Regression analysis was used to relate VIA size to platform weigher (FIRE) measurements of live weight. Residual maximum likelihood (REML) analysis showed that at the observed growth rate, a change in pig state could be detected by VIA after 8, 9, and 10 days respectively for the three types, and by the platform weigher system after 12, 4, and 13 days (in both cases with a confidence of 95%). Artificial neural network and canonical variates analysis were used to test the ability of VIA to distinguish between pig types and sexes. With cross validation, the canonical variates analysis correctly classified the three types in 72, 83, and 64% of observations, and the neural network in 81, 81, and 64% of observations. The VIA system is considered to be a valuable monitoring system which may play a rôle in the construction of integrated management systems (IMS).

A 3 ✕ 2 factorial experiment was conducted to investigate the interaction between lactofeed 70 (LF70) (860 g/kg whey permeate, 140 g/kg soya-bean meal, Volac International, UK) levels and soya-bean meal inclusion (SBM) (90 and 225 g/kg) from day 0 to day 25 after weaning (starter period) on growth performance and diet digestibility. A common diet was offered from day 25 to day 38. Dietary treatments were established by substituting LF70 for extruded wheat and soya-bean meal for potato protein (PP) and soya protein concentrate (SPC). Digestible energy and amino acids were maintained by adjusting soya oil and synthetic amino acids. A total of 252 pigs (7·7 kg and 28 ± 2 days of age) were allotted randomly to six treatments containing (1) 0 LF70 with 40 g/kg PP and 40 g/kg SPC and 90 g/kg SBM (2) 0 LF70 with 225 g/kg SBM (3) 175 g/kg LF70 with 40 g/kg PP and 40 g/kg SPC and 90 g/kg SBM (4) 175 g/kg LF70 with 225 g/kg SBM (5) 350 g/kg LF70 with 40 g/kg PP, 40 g/kg SPC and 90 g/kg SBM and (6) 350 g/kg LF70 with 225 g/kg SBM. There was an increase in average daily gain (ADG) (0·182 v. 0·292 v. 0·318 kg, s.e. 0·0089; P < 0·001) and food intake (0·413 v. 0·472 v. 0·489 kg, s.e. 0·0139; P < 0·01) and an improvement in food conversion ratio (FCR) (2·31 v. 1·63 v. 1·55 kg, s.e. 0·037; P < 0·001) as the level of LF70 increased during the starter period. From day 25 to day 38, the pigs given the starter diets containing no LF70 had an improved ADG (P < 0·05) and FCR (P < 0·001) compared with the pigs given 175 and 350 g/kg LF70. The pigs offered diets containing 350 g/kg lactofeed had a significantly higher N digestibility (P < 0·05) than the pigs offered diets containing no lactofeed. There was a significant interaction (P < 0·001) between LF70 and SBM in the apparent digestibility of gross energy (GED). Pigs given higher SBM diets had a higher GED at the 350 g/kg LF70 inclusion than pigs given PP + SPC diets. However, there was no difference in GED at the 0 and 175 g/kg LF70 inclusion. In conclusion, the inclusion of LF70 increased ADG, food intake and apparent N digestibility and improved FCR.

The efficacy of three microbial phytases to increase the amount of digestible phosphorus (dP) was studied in pigs. A basal diet was prepared meeting the requirements of 30-kg pigs with the exception of P. Concentrations (in g/kg dry matter) were: P 2·9, phytate P 1·3, calcium (Ca) 6·9, and crude protein 208. Intrinsic phytase activity was below detection limit. Microbial phytase was supplemented from three sources (Aspergillus niger (Asp), Peniophora lycii (Pen), and consensus phytase (Con)) at the following levels (phytase units (FTU) per kg diet): 150, 300, 450, 600 and 900. Diets were pelleted without steam. Forty-eight male castrated crossbred pigs ((Large White X German Landrace) X Pietrain) initially weighing, on average, 28 kg were individually penned. Each of the 16 diets was offered to three pigs in three consecutive periods of 17 days each, resulting in nine replicates per treatment. No animal received the same diet twice. Faeces were spot-sampled for each individual pig twice daily for the last 7 days of each period. TiO2 was used as an indigestible marker. An exponential function was fitted to the data, and both marginal and cumulative efficacies of phytases were described on the basis of the resulting functions.

No significant period effect was detected for any of the obtained data. On overall average, daily live-weight (LW) gain was 730 g, and 2.57 kg food were needed per kg LW gain. Neither criterion was significantly affected by source or level of supplementary phytase. Digestibility of organic matter and crude protein averaged 0.90 and 0.84, respectively, again without a significant treatment effect. Digestible P concentration in no case exceeded 1.5 g/kg DM, indicating that P supply to pigs was marginal in all treatments. Digestibility of P from the basal diet was 0.22. P digestibility was significantly affected (P = 0.001) both by the source and by the level of supplementary phytase. It responded in a non-linear fashion to increasing phytase supplementation, this course being less clear for Pen than for Asp and Con phytase. In no case was a clear plateau in P digestibility reached within the range studied. For Asp and Con, marginal efficacy decreased from about 2 mg dP per incremental FTU at low supplementary level to roughly 0.6 mg dP per incremental FTU. This clear dose dependent effect was not present for the Pen phytase, where about 0.6 to 0.7 mg dP per incremental FTU were released almost irrespective of the level of supplementation. It is concluded that phytases of different origin rank differently from each other regarding their efficacy, depending on the level of supplementation. Dose-response studies are recommended in cases where different phytases are to be compared.

A study was carried out on six lowland farms in Northern Ireland over 2 years to examine the effect on labour input and lamb output of adopting an outdoor (grass-based) lambing system in comparison to an indoor lambing system. Each farm had four crossbred ewe genotypes – Bluefaced Leicester ✕ Scottish Blackface (BLXB), Texel ✕ Scottish Blackface (TXB), Suffolk ✕ Cheviot (SXCH) and Texel ✕ Cheviot (TXCH) ewes. The ewes were divided into three groups balanced for live weight and condition score and mated with Texel, Suffolk or Beltex rams. Half of the ewes lambed indoors and the other half were turned out to grass three to 6 weeks before lambing and lambed outdoors. BLXB ewes were the most prolific of the four ewe genotypes producing 1·99 lambs per ewe lambed compared with 1·75 for TXB, 1·76 for SXCH and 1·64 for TXCH (P < 0.001). A greater proportion of SXCH ewes lambed without assistance (0·82) compared with BLXB (0.70), TXB (0.71) and TXCH (0.74) ewes (P < 0.01) and subsequently less time was spent lambing SXCH ewes (P < 0.01). This advantage of the SXCH was more marked in the outdoor than in the indoor system (P < 0.01) in terms of lamb output, each of the four ewe genotypes performed similarly in the indoor and outdoor lambing systems. Lambs born in the outdoor system weighed 0.2 kg more at birth compared with those born indoors (P < 0.05). Lamb mortality and lamb output were similar in both systems. Less time was spent catching and moving ewes in the outdoor system compared with the indoor system (P < 0.01). Beltex-sired lambs weighed less at birth (4.9 kg) compared with Texel- (5.1 kg) (P < 0.10) and Suffolk-(5.3 kg) (P < 0.001) sired lambs and had lower live-weight gains from birth to 6 weeks and from birth to weaning (P < 0.001) and lower output of weaned lamb (P < 0.05). The results of this study demonstrate that, compared with indoor lambing systems, similar levels of performance can be achieved through adopting outdoor, grass-based systems. The lack of a significant interaction between ewe or ram genotype and lambing system indicates that all of the genotypes are suitable for incorporating into an outdoor lambing system.

A two-factorial experiment was conducted in order to quantify and distinguish the influences of altitude and forage origin on metabolism and milk synthesis of dairy cows kept at Alpine locations. Each of four experimental groups comprised six dairy cows in early to mid lactation which were kept tethered in barns at altitudes of either 2000 (Alpine) or 400 m above sea level (a.s.l.) (lowland). Two groups (Alpine and lowland) received hay ad libitum, a third group kept in the lowlands was pair-fed to the Alpine group and a control group was offered silages and concentrates according to milk yield. Two hay types, with origin either from 2000 or 400 m a.s.l., were offered to all hay-alone groups following a change-over design over three 21-day periods. Transferring cows to high altitude triggered a complex adaptation process, which resulted in depressions of food intake at the beginning of the experiment and changed plasma levels of metabolic traits indicating an energy deficit. On average over the entire experiment, high altitude sojourn elevated plasma β-hydroxybutyrate and decreased plasma glucose levels. Yields of milk and of main milk constituents were not significantly affected, but milk protein content was reduced in both the Alpine and in the pair-fed group. No generally elevated maintenance requirements as a consequence of hypoxia were found. Hay-alone feeding caused a co-limitation of net energy and absorbable protein in both hay types which was almost completely compensated by a reduction of milk yield. The hay of Alpine origin had a lower digestibility and crude protein content than the lowland hay which resulted in changes in blood plasma traits and a further suppression of milk yield and milk protein and lactose contents. Due to the low N content of the Alpine hay, N utilization for milk protein synthesis remained similar to that found with lowland hay, and manure N of these cows contained the lowest proportion of easily-volatile urine N. In conclusion, forage origin in conjunction with diet type seems to explain the major part of the adverse effects that the Alpine sojourn exerts on lactating dairy cows while the effects of hypoxia appear to be of lesser importance.

Urea-treated whole-crop wheat harvested at growth stage (GS) 87 that was either unprocessed (U) or processed (P) by the forage harvester, and cut at one of two heights to produce a long straw (L), or short straw (S) forage, was offered to 44 Holstein-Friesian dairy cows for 14 weeks according to a 2 ✕ 2 factorial design. Whole-crop wheat (WCW) was mixed 2: 1 on a dry-matter (DM) basis with grass silage and all animals received 8·5 kg/day of concentrate and 2 kg/day of rapeseed meal. Increasing the cutting height at harvest increased the starch content in the forage from an average of 356 to 419 g/kg DM and decreased neutral-detergent fibre levels from 422 to 337 g/kg DM. Forage intake (grass silage and WCW) was higher in cows given the unprocessed compared with the processed forages (13·7 v. 12·5 kg DM per day for treatments U v. P respectively; P < 0·05) and tended (P < 0·08) to be higher in cows given the long compared with the short straw forages. Neither processing, nor alteration of cutting height, had a significant effect on milk yield (kg/day). However, milk fat content decreased (P < 0·05) with increasing cutting height (41·9 v. 37·0 g/kg for the main effects of L v. S respectively) whilst body condition score was lower (P < 0·05) in cows given the long compared with the short straw forages (2·6 v. 2·8 respectively). Plasma glucose levels were higher (P < 0·05) in animals receiving the short compared with long straw forages (3·52 v. 3·34 mmol/l respectively) whereas β-hydroxybutyrate decreased (P < 0·01) with increased cutting height. The average digestibility of starch in the total ration was higher (P < 0·001) in cows given the processed compared with the unprocessed WCW (0·96 v. 0·88 respectively). Assuming a constant apparent digestibility of starch in the other food components resulted in a WCW starch apparent digestibility of 0·87, 0·97, 0·80 and 0·96 for forages LU, LP, SU and SP respectively (P < 0·001). The results indicate that processing at harvest significantly increased the digestibility of starch in WCW and that cows responded to this higher nutrient content by decreasing forage intake. Increasing the cutting height at harvest decreased milk fat content (g/kg) and yield (kg/day) and increased body condition score.

Twenty-eight buffalo cows were used to evaluate the effect of housing system on a range of behavioural and physiological variables. Fourteen cows were group-housed in a loose open-sided barn with a concrete floor and 10 m2 per head as space allowance (group IS). Fourteen others were group-housed in a similar barn but they could also benefit from an outdoor yard with 500 m2 per head as space allowance, free access to potholes for wallowing and spontaneous vegetation (group TS). Animals were subjected to six sessions of instantaneous scan sampling at 10-day intervals. Behavioural variables were expressed as proportions of subjects observed in each category of posture and activity. Phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) was used to perform a skin test based on non-specific delayed type hypersensitivity, whereas 20 mg of ovalbumin were injected subcutaneously to evaluate humoral immune response. Blood samples for evaluation of cortisol concentration were collected immediately prior to exogenous porcine ACTH injection and 1, 2 and 4 h after. The metabolic status of the animals and milk production were also monitored. The proportion of idling animals was higher in group IS than in group TS (P < 0.001). More IS buffalo cows were observed eating at the manger than TS animals (P < 0.001). A higher proportion of TS animals were observed in the sun (P < 0.001). Grazing and bathing activities were recorded only for TS animals. Our findings suggest that buffalo cows kept in intensive conditions and having no access to ample yards and potholes may extend their periods of idling with negative effects on the state of welfare. Immune responses, metabolite concentrations and milk production were not affected by treatment, whereas cortisol levels were higher in IS animals (P < 0.05). The provision of a housing system similar to natural conditions was able to improve the welfare of buffalo cows as indicated by the expression of some species-specific natural behaviours. Such conditions were also associated with lower adrenal cortex response to ACTH injection, possibly as a consequence of the higher degree of initiative allowed to TS cows.

The effects of forage type, breed type and sex on lamb growth and carcass composition, and their changes throughout growth, were measured. The three breed types were Scottish Blackface (no. = 31), Suffolk (no. = 28) and their reciprocal cross (no. = 30). The lambs were given ad libitum a pelleted ryegrass alone, pelleted lucerne alone or a choice of both. Each lamb was scanned using X-ray computed tomography to measure the weights of fat, lean and bone in the carcass at three proportions of mature body weight (0·30, 0·45 and 0·65). Live weights and food intake data were recorded weekly. Average daily gains in live weight and carcass tissues, food intake and efficiency were calculated for each lamb between degrees of maturity. Relationships between weight and food intake were investigated using a Spillman function.

Breed type had no effect on fat or lean proportion in the carcass but Scottish Blackface lambs had 1·04 times the carcass bone proportions of the Suffolk or crossbred lambs. Diet had no effect on carcass tissue proportions. The effect of sex on carcass composition changed with stage of maturity. Breed type and sex effects on intakes and gains in live weight and tissue weights were related to mature size differences. Scaling by (mature size)0·73 did not fully remove these differences. There were no effects of breed type, sex or diet on efficiency. Lambs on ryegrass had lower intakes (0·878 as great) and slower growth (0·851 as fast) than those on lucerne or the choice treatment. The mean proportion of ryegrass in the choice diet was 0·366 (s.e. 0·0273); it increased slightly with time. There was no breed type by diet interaction for any of the variables examined. The Spillman function described growth well and showed that there were no effects of breed type, diet or sex on efficiency.

One hundred and eight high genetic merit Holstein-Friesian heifers were used to determine the effects of rearing regime on the development of the mammary gland and claw abnormalities. Heifers were allocated to one of four rearing regimes at 7 weeks of age and slaughtered at 18 (s.d.0.7) months of age; mating commenced at 14 months of age. Treatment 1 heifers were reared to calve at 540 kg and treatments 2, 3 and 4 heifers reared to calve at 620 kg. Treatment 1 and 2 heifers were offered grass silage-based diets during the winter and grass-based diets during the summer; treatment 2 heifers received additional concentrates. Treatment 3 heifers were offered a straw/concentrate diet during the winter and a grass-based diet during the summer. Treatment 4 heifers received the same winter diets as treatment 3 but were housed and offered a straw/concentrate diet in summer. Increasing plane of nutrition increased the weight of dissected udder fat (P < 0.01), but had no effect on the weight or chemical composition of dissected udder parenchyma. Offering straw- compared with silage-based diets reduced fat deposition in the udder (P < 0.01) and increased the proportion of parenchyma in the udder (P < 0.01). Keeping heifers housed during the first summer and offering straw-based diets relative to those turned out to grass had no effect on weight of fat although there was a tendency towards a reduction in the proportion of parenchyma in the udder (P < 0.06). Heifers reared on a low plane of nutrition had lower values for heel height (P < 0.001), lateral claw length (P < 0.001) and heel erosion scores (P < 0.01). A higher plane of nutrition also increased live weight/sole area although this was only significantly higher for treatment 3 (P < 0.05) compared with treatment 1 heifers. Housing heifers in the first summer increased the incidence of feet lesions in the white line area and solear area relative to turning heifers out to grass in the first summer (P < 0.05).