Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-ph5wq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-29T10:20:19.600Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The Soviet Bloc's Answer to European Integration: Catholic Anti-Germanism and the Polish Project of a ‘Catholic-Socialist’ International

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 January 2015

PIOTR H. KOSICKI*
Affiliation:
University of Maryland, 2115 Francis Scott Key Hall, College Park, MD 20742, USA; kosicki@umd.edu

Abstract

This article explores an attempt by one Polish organisation – known until 1952 by the name of its weekly journal Dziś i Jutro, thereafter as PAX – to assemble a ‘Catholic-socialist’ international in the decade following the Second World War. This transnational project was predicated on co-operation across the Iron Curtain by Catholic thinkers and activists opposed to the rearmament and incorporation of (West) Germany into an integrated European community. The project's author Wojciech Kętrzyński deployed a discourse of protecting the ‘human person’ based on the prioritisation of global peace. Polish encounters with francophone Catholic activists from across Western Europe – especially with the French journal Esprit – bred serious intellectual engagement across the Iron Curtain at the level of Catholic philosophy and theology. Paradoxically, however, these activists accepted that the dignity of the human person would be best served by transnational anti-Germanism, at the price of complicity with – or outright participation in – Stalinism. The self-styled Catholic-socialist project thus failed, yet, surprisingly, it failed neither immediately nor completely. It thus reveals that possibilities existed throughout the cold war – even at the height of Soviet-bloc Stalinism – for intellectual, cultural and political exchanges and partnerships across the Iron Curtain.

La réponse du bloc soviétique à l’intégration européenne: l’antigermanisme catholique et le projet polonais d’une internationale ‘catholique-socialiste’

Cet article explore la tentative par une organisation polonaise – connue jusqu’en 1952 sous le nom de son hebdomadaire, Dziś i Jutro, puis sous celui de PAX – de mobiliser une Internationale ‘catholique-socialiste’ au cours de la décennie qui a suivi la Deuxième Guerre mondiale. Ce projet transnational était fondé sur la coopération entre penseurs et activistes catholiques des deux côtés du rideau de fer opposés au réarmement et à l’incorporation de l’Allemagne (de l’Ouest) dans une communauté européenne intégrée. L’instigateur de ce projet, Wojciech Kętrzyński, a déployé un discours de protection de la ‘personne humaine’ fondé sur le rôle prioritaire de la paix dans le monde. Les rencontres polonaises avec des activistes catholiques francophones de toute l’Europe de l’Ouest, spécialement avec ceux de la revue française Esprit, ont ainsi donné lieu à d’importants échanges intellectuels entre interlocuteurs de part et d’autre du rideau de fer concernant la philosophie et la théologie catholique. Paradoxalement, ces activistes admettaient cependant qu’un antigermanisme transnational était à préconiser pour la dignité de la personne humaine, même si le prix à payer était la complicité avec le stalinisme, ou même la participation au stalinisme. Le projet soi-disant catholique-socialiste fut donc un échec, mais, chose surprenante, ce ne fut ni un échec immédiat, ni un échec total; il montre que tout au long de la Guerre froide – et même au plus fort du stalinisme du bloc soviétique – subsistaient des possibilités d’échanges intellectuels, culturels et politiques et de partenariats par-delà le rideau de fer.

Die antwort des ostblocks auf die europäische integration: katholischer anti-germanismus und das polnische projekt einer ‘katholisch-sozialistischen’ internationale

Dieser Beitrag erforscht den Versuch einer polnischen Organisation – die bis 1952 unter dem Namen ihrer Wochenzeitschrift Dziś i Jutro und anschließend als PAX bekannt war – im ersten Jahrzehnt nach Kriegsende eine ‘katholisch-sozialistische’ Internationale aufzubauen. Das transnationale Projekt gründete sich auf eine Zusammenarbeit von katholischen Denkern und Aktivisten beiderseits des Eisernen Vorhangs, die die Wiederaufrüstung und Einbindung (West-) Deutschlands in eine integrierte europäische Gemeinschaft ablehnten. Der Begründer des Projekts, Wojciech Kętrzyński, beschwor den Schutz der ‘menschlichen Person’ gestützt auf die Vorrangigkeit des Weltfriedens. Begegnungen zwischen den Polen und frankophonen katholischen Aktivisten aus Westeuropa – insbesondere mit der französischen Zeitschrift Esprit – nährten beiderseits des Eisernen Vorhangs eine ernsthafte intellektuelle Auseinandersetzung auf der Ebene katholischer Philosophie und Theologie. Paradoxerweise gingen diese Aktivisten davon aus, dass der Würde der menschlichen Person am besten durch einen transnationalen Anti-Germanismus gedient sei. Dafür nahmen sie eine Komplizenschaft mit dem stalinistischen Regime oder gar eine direkte Beteiligung in Kauf. Das selbststilisierte katholisch-sozialistische Projekt scheiterte daher, doch überraschenderweise weder vollkommen noch sofort. Jedenfalls zeigt es, dass während des Kalten Krieges – selbst auf dem Höhepunkt des Stalinismus im Ostblock – Gelegenheiten zu intellektuellem, kulturellem und politischem Austausch und zu Partnerschaften über den Eisernen Vorhang hinweg bestanden.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Van Kemseke, Peter, Towards an Era of Development: The Globalisation of Socialism and Christian Democracy, 1945–1965 (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2006)Google Scholar.

2 Kaiser, Wolfram, ‘Creating Core Europe: The Rise of the Party Network’, in Christian Democracy and the Origins of European Union (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 191252CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also, e.g. Papini, Roberto, The Christian Democrat International, tr. Royal, Robert (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1997)Google Scholar. On the intergovernmental, interstate story of European integration, see, e.g. Milward, Alan S., European Rescue of the Nation-State, 2nd edn (London: Routledge, 2000)Google Scholar.

3 Di Biagio, Anna, ‘The Establishment of the Cominform’, in Procacci, Giuliano et al., eds, The Cominform: Minutes of the Three Conferences 1947/1948/1949 (Milan: Fondazione Giangiacomo Feltrinelli, 1994), 1134Google Scholar.

4 Quoted in Roberts, Geoffrey, Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2006), 318Google Scholar.

5 Chenaux, Philippe, Une Europe Vaticane? Entre le Plan Marshall et les Traités de Rome (Brussels: Ciaco, 1990), esp. 139–50Google Scholar.

6 Horn, Gerd-Rainer, European Socialists Respond to Fascism: Ideology, Activism and Contingency in the 1930s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996)Google Scholar. On the post-war period, see Peter Van Kemseke, ‘Made in London: The Postwar Socialist International’, in Towards an Era of Development, 17–21.

7 Naimark, Norman and Gibianskii, Leonid, eds, The Establishment of Communist Regimes in Eastern Europe, 1944–1949 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1997)Google Scholar.

8 On the political agency of transnational actors, see e.g. Keck, Margaret E. and Sikkink, Kathryn, Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 216–17Google Scholar; Barnett, Clive, ‘Political Agency between Urban and Transnational Spaces’, in Maiguashca, Bice and Marchetti, Raffaele, eds, Contemporary Political Agency: Theory and Practice (London: Routledge, 2013), 3151Google Scholar.

9 Respectively – Choduba, Wiesław, ed., Bene merenti civitas Radomiensis: Leszkowi Kołakowskiemu w 80 rocznicę urodzin (Radom: Radomskie Towarzystwo Naukowe, 2007)Google Scholar; Iwaszkiewicz, Jarosław, Dzienniki, 3 vols (Warsaw: Czytelnik, 2007–11)Google Scholar.

10 See, e.g. Goddeeris, Idesbald, Spioneren voor het communisme: Belgische prominenten en Poolse geheim agenten (Leuven: LannooCampus, 2013)Google Scholar.

11 See, e.g. Hirszowicz, Maria, Pułapki zaangażowania: Intelektualiści w służbie komunizmu (Warsaw: Scholar, 2001)Google Scholar. On Mazowiecki, see Piotr H. Kosicki, ‘After 1989: The Life and Death of the Catholic Third Way’, Times Literary Supplement, 13 Dec. 2013, 13–15.

12 Mikołaj Stanisław Kunicki has written an exhaustive biography of Bolesław Piasecki, whose post-war turn to Catholic philo-communism led him to found Dziś i Jutro. Kunicki does not, however, use the wealth of the Dziś i Jutro foreign correspondence files preserved in the archives of Dziś i Jutro/PAX's successor organisation, Civitas Christiana. It is in those files that one finds the design for the Catholic-socialist international, alongside six years’ worth of extensive – principally French-language – correspondence documenting the Polish activists’ efforts at assembling the international: Kunicki, Mikołaj Stanisław, Between the Brown and the Red: Nationalism, Catholicism and Communism in Twentieth-Century Poland—The Politics of Bolesław Piasecki, 1915–1979 (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 See Horn, Gerd-Rainer and Gerard, Emmanuel, eds, Left Catholicism 1943–1955: Catholics and Society in Western Europe at the Point of Liberation (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2001)Google Scholar; also, Piotr H. Kosicki, ‘Between Catechism and Revolution: Poland, France and the Story of Catholicism and Socialism in Europe, 1878–1958’, PhD thesis, Princeton University, 2011, esp. 239–424.

14 See Noszczak, Bartłomiej, Polityka państwa wobec Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego w Polsce w okresie internowania prymasa Stefana Wyszyńskiego 1953–1956 (Warsaw: IPN-KŚZpNP, 2008), 2158Google Scholar.

15 Kunicki, Between the Brown and the Red, 79–82.

16 Gomułka, Władysław, Pamiętniki, ed. Werblan, Andrzej (Warsaw: BGW, 1994), II, 516–17Google Scholar.

17 Bolesław Piasecki, ‘Ogólne zasady światopoglądowe’, July 1945, repr. in Micewski, Andrzej, Współrządzić czy nie kłamać? Pax i Znak w Polsce 1945–1976 (Paris: Libella, 1978), 26–7Google Scholar.

18 Kunicki, Between the Brown and the Red, 86.

19 Rostworowski, Mikołaj, Słowo o PAX-ie (Warsaw: Pax, 1968), 24–5Google Scholar.

20 Mettepenningen, Jürgen, Nouvelle théologie – new theology: Inheritor of Modernism, Precursor of Vatican II (New York: T&T Clark, 2010)Google Scholar.

21 See, e.g. Service, Hugo, ‘Reinterpreting the Expulsion of Germans from Poland, 1945–9’, Journal of Contemporary History, 47, 3 (2012), 528–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

22 The letter appeared later that same year in Polish translation as an anti-German, anti-Vatican propaganda piece: Pius XII, Papież Pius XII do biskupów niemieckich: Pełny tekst listu z dnia 1 marca 1948 (Katowice: Odra, 1948).

23 See, e.g. Thum, Gregor, ‘The Patriotic Reorganisation of the Church’, in Uprooted: How Breslau Became Wrocław During the Century of Expulsions, tr. Lampert, Tom and Brown, Allison (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011), 4352Google Scholar.

24 Piasecki, Bolesław, Zagadnienia istotne: Artykuły z lat 1945–1954 (Warsaw: Pax, 1954), 33Google Scholar.

25 The Wrocław congress as such has received only summary treatment: Desanti, Dominique, Les Staliniens (1944–1956): Une expérience politique (Paris: Fayard, 1975), 107Google Scholar; Wittner, Lawrence S., One World or None: A History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement through 1953 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993), 175–7Google Scholar; Shore, Marci, Caviar and Ashes: A Warsaw Generation's Life and Death in Marxism, 1918–1968 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2006), 270–73Google Scholar; Judt, Tony, Past Imperfect: French Intellectuals, 1944–1956 (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1992), 224Google Scholar. See also Krasucki, Eryk, Międzynarodowy komunista: Jerzy Borejsza biografia polityczna (Warsaw: PWN, 2009), 156–61Google Scholar.

26 Wittner, One World or None, 177–80; Weston Ullrich, ‘Preventing “Peace”: The British Government and the Second World Peace Congress’, Cold War History (iFirst 2010), DOI:10.1080/14682741003686123, 5.

27 Quoted in Wittner, One World or None, 178.

28 See Tranvouez, Yvon, ‘1950: L’Appel de Stockholm et la naissance du progressisme chrétien’, in Catholiques d’abord: Approches du mouvement catholique en France (XIXe–XXe siècle) (Paris: Éditions Ouvrières, 1988), 132–71Google Scholar; Wittner, One World or None, 182–4.

29 Repr. in Frédéric Joliot-Curie, ‘A Proposal toward the Elimination of the Atomic Danger’, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, June 1950, 166–7, at 166.

30 Joliot-Curie, ‘A Proposal toward the Elimination of the Atomic Danger’, 167.

31 Wittner, One World or None, 193.

32 Tranvouez, ‘1950’. See also René d’Ouince, ‘Les Catholiques et l’Appel de Stockholm’, Études, Jul.–Aug. 1950, 106–20.

33 Mandouze, André, ‘Prendre la main tendue’, in Les Chrétiens et la politique (Paris: Temps Présent, 1948), 3978Google Scholar, at 51. Mandouze argued that Europe needed a communitarian revolution to reverse capitalist attacks on the dignity of the human person and therefore Mandouze's progressive Catholicism was predicated on the ‘recognition that no revolution is possible without the Communists but that the Communists cannot do it alone’. Mandouze, ‘Prendre la main tendue’, 62. Italics in the original.

34 Quoted in Wittner, One World or None, 189.

35 See, e.g Mandouze, André, Mémoires d’outre-siècle: D’une résistance à l’autre (Paris: Viviane Hamy, 1998)Google Scholar, I, esp. 185.

36 Tranvouez, Yvon, ‘Guerre froide et progressisme chrétien: La Quinzaine (1950–1953)’, Vingtième Siècle: Revue d’histoire 13 (1987), 8394, at 83CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

37 On the Dominicans and the Mission de France, see Horn, Gerd-Rainer, Western European Liberation Theology: The First Wave (1924–1959) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Leprieur, François, Quand Rome condamne: Dominicains et prêtres ouvriers (Paris: Plon/Cerf, 1989)Google Scholar. On the Jeunesse de l’Église, see Keck, Thierry, Jeunesse de l’Église: 1936–1955: Aux sources de la crise progressiste en France (Paris: Karthala, 2004)Google Scholar.

38 Moyn, Samuel, ‘Personalism, Community and the Origins of Human Rights’, in Hoffmann, Stefan-Ludwig, ed., Human Rights in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 85106CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

39 Horn, Western European Liberation Theology.

40 See Pelletier, Denis, Économie et Humanisme: De l’utopie communautaire au combat pour le tiers-monde, 1941–1966 (Paris: Cerf, 1996)Google Scholar. On Action Populaire, Fouilloux, Étienne, ‘L’Action populaire au temps de la reconstruction, 1946–1958’, Chrétiens et sociétés: XVIe–XXIe siècles, 11 (2004)Google Scholar.

41 Mabille, François, Les Catholiques et la paix au temps de la guerre froide: Le Mouvement catholique international pour la paix Pax Christi (Paris: Harmattan, 2004)Google Scholar.

42 Kosicki, ‘Between Catechism and Revolution’, 402–11, 442–70. For published evidence of Pax Christi's close ties with Dziś i Jutro/PAX, see Robert Bosc, ‘Catholiques de Pologne’, Revue de l’Action populaire, Jul.–Aug. (1953), 606–13; Jacques Mignon, ‘Des Catholiques français et polonais se rencontrent’, L’Actualité religieuse dans le monde, 1 Aug. 1953, 33–4.

43 Robert Bosc, ‘L’Accord du 14 avril 1950 entre le gouvernement et l’Épiscopat polonais’, Études, Sept. (1950), 258–62. On the limited shelf life of the Accord, see, e.g. Żaryn, Jan, Kościół a władza w Polsce (1945–1950) (Warsaw: DiG, 1997), 311Google Scholar.

44 Wladimir d’Ormesson, Report to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 9 May 1950, quoted in Tranvouez, Yvon, Catholiques et communistes: La Crise du progressisme chrétien, 1950–1955 (Paris: Cerf, 2000), 46Google Scholar.

45 The visit took place in mid May 1947. See Dominik Horodyński to Emmanuel Mounier, 16 Jan. 1947, ESP2.C1-02.06, Institut Mémoires de l’Édition Contemporaine (Institute of Documentation of Contemporary Publishing, IMEC), Saint-Germain-la-Blanche-Herbe; Konstanty Łubieński to Emmanuel Mounier, 13 Mar. 1947, IMEC ESP2.C1-02.06; Jean-Marie Domenach to Konstanty Łubieński, 18 Mar. 1947, IMEC ESP2.C1-02.06.

46 Emmanuel Mounier, Diary, 29 May 1946, IMEC MNR2.D5-06.01; also Kosicki, Piotr H., ‘L’Avènement des intellectuels catholiques: Le Mensuel Więź et les conséquences polonaises du personnalisme mounierien’, Vingtième Siècle: Revue d’histoire 102 (2009), 3148, at 35–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

47 Kętrzyński to Domenach, 29 Mar. 1950, Dziś i Jutro/PAX Foreign Correspondence File, V/87, Archiwum Katolickiego Stowarzyszenia ‘Civitas Christiana’ (Archives of the ‘Civitas Christiana’ Catholic Assocation, AKSCC).

48 Naurois, Claude [Maria Winowska], Dieu contre Dieu? Drame des catholiques progressistes dans une Église du silence (Paris: Saint-Paul, 1956), 99113Google Scholar. For background, Mazur, Daria, Realizm socpaxowski (Bydgoszcz: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Kazimierza Wielkiego, 2013), 1, 7, 30–2, 266Google Scholar.

49 Paweł Machcewicz, Rebellious Satellite: Poland, 1956, tr. Latynski, Maya (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press/Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2009)Google Scholar; Gati, Charles, Failed Illusions: Moscow, Washington, Budapest and the 1956 Hungarian Revolt (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press/Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2006)Google Scholar.

50 Jerzy Zawieyski, Diary entry for 13 May 1957, Jerzy Zawieyski Diaries, Biblioteka Narodowa akc. 9292/4; also Zabłocki, Janusz, diary entry for 9 Oct. 1960, in Dzienniki 1956–1965 (Warsaw: IPN-KŚZpNP, 2008), 280Google Scholar.

51 Mayeur, Jean-Marie, ‘“L’Affaire Pax” en France’, in Offredo, Jean, ed., Le Cardinal de fer: Stefan Wyszyński (Malakoff, Paris: Cana, 2003), 127–36Google Scholar.

52 The obituary is in a special issue published in May: ‘Emanuel Mounier’, Dziś i Jutro, 9–16 Apr. 1950.

53 Dziś i Jutro Staff [Kętrzyński] to Esprit Staff, 28 Mar. 1950, AKSCC V/87.

54 Kętrzyński to Domenach, 5 Aug. 1950, AKSCC V/87.

55 Micewski, Współrządzić czy nie kłamać?, 29.

56 See Zabłocki, Janusz, Chrześcijańska Demokracja w kraju i na emigracji 1947–1970 (Lublin: Ośrodek Studiów Polonijnych i Społecznych PZKS, 1999), 14Google Scholar.

57 Kętrzyński would probably have recognised as ‘liberal-capitalist’ the industrialising world described in Paul Misner's excellent history of the origins of social Catholicism: Misner, Social Catholicism in Europe: From the Onset of Industrialisation to the First World War (New York: Crossroad, 1991)Google Scholar.

58 Wojciech Kętrzyński, ‘Konsekwencje encyklik społecznych’, Dziś i Jutro, 6 Jun. 1948.

59 Wojciech Kętrzyński, ‘Rzeczywistość’, Dziś i Jutro, 18 Apr. 1948.

60 Paczkowski, Andrzej, The Spring Will Be Ours: Poland and the Poles from Occupation to Freedom, tr. Cave, Jane (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003), 207–15Google Scholar.

61 Andrzej Krasiński, ‘Przebudowa wsi’, Dziś i Jutro, 12 Dec. 1948.

62 Wojciech Kętrzyński, ‘Idzie rok 1948’, Dziś i Jutro, 1 Feb. 1948.

63 Kunicki, Between the Brown and the Red, 86.

64 Konstanty Łubieński, ‘List otwarty do Pana Juliusza Łady (Na marginesie notatki w The Tablet)’, Dziś i Jutro, 5 Dec. 1948.

65 See Kunicki, Between the Brown and the Red, 52–76; Kobylańska, Zofia, Konfederacja Narodu w Warszawie (Warsaw: Pax, 1999)Google Scholar.

66 These are the broadly defined milieux reconstructed in Horn and Gerard, eds, Left Catholicism 1943–1955.

67 Wolf, Hubert, Pope and Devil: The Vatican's Archives and the Third Reich, tr. Kronenberg, Kenneth (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 2010)Google Scholar; Kent, Peter C., The Lonely Cold War of Pope Pius XII: the Roman Catholic Church and the Division of Europe, 1943–1950 (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2002)Google Scholar.

68 Żurek, Jacek, Ruch ‘Księży Patriotów’ w województwie katowickim w latach 1949–1956 (Warsaw-Katowice: IPN-KŚZpNP, 2009), esp. 232–45Google Scholar. On Dziś i Jutro/PAX's crossover with PKOP, see Żurek, Ruch ‘Księży Patriotów’, 147–72.

69 Kętrzyński, ‘Światła i cienie nad Wielkim Miastem’, Dziś i Jutro, 9 Oct. 1949; Kętrzyński, ‘Republiki przemijają’, Dziś i Jutro, 23 Oct. 1949; Kętrzyński, ‘“Życie łatwe”’, Dziś i Jutro, 13 Nov. 1949; Kętrzyński, ‘Na politycznym wachlarzu’, Dziś i Jutro, 20 Nov. 1949; Wittner, One World or None, 177–80.

70 Kętrzyński, ‘Zagadnienie szwedzkie’, Dziś i Jutro, 23 Apr. 1950.

71 See Thorez, Radio Address on Radio Paris, 17 Apr. 1936, quoted in Thorez, Communistes et catholiques: La main tendue. . . (Paris: Éditions du comité populaire de propagande, 1937), 11.

72 Palmiro Togliatti, ‘Comrade Togliatti's Report: Working-Class Unity and the Tasks of the Communist and Workers’ Parties’, 17 Nov. 1949, in Procacci et al., eds, The Cominform, 783–803, at 789.

73 Togliatti, ‘Comrade Togliatti's Report’, 797.

74 Togliatti, ‘Comrade Togliatti's Report’, 797. The key treatises of which one can find traces in Togliatti's arguments about the role of the laity – and the working masses in particular – in governing their own worldly commitments include Maritain, Jacques, Humanisme Intégral: Problèmes temporels et spirituels d’une nouvelle chrétienté (Paris: F. Aubier, 1936)Google Scholar; Chenu, Marie-Dominique, Spiritualité du travail (Liège: La Pensée catholique, 1947Google Scholar).

75 See also Garaudy, Roger, L’Église, le communisme et les chrétiens (Paris: Éditions Sociales, 1949), esp. 366Google Scholar.

76 Ventresca, Robert A., ‘When Politics Reaches the Altar: Catholic Action Gets Out the Vote’, in From Fascism to Democracy: Culture and Politics in the Italian Election of 1948 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004), 177–97Google Scholar.

77 Decree of the Holy Office of the Roman Catholic Church, 1 July 1949, reproduced in Tranvouez, Catholiques et communistes, 42.

78 Togliatti, ‘Comrade Togliatti's Report’, 797.

79 For broader Polish Catholic support of the Stockholm Appeal, see ‘Pokój i wojna’, Tygodnik Powszechny, 30 Apr. 1950; Jan Piwowarczyk, ‘Duch pokoju’, Tygodnik Powszechny, 21–28 May 1950.

80 ‘Notatka w sprawie możliwej roli Katolików polskich na terenie Europy Zachodniej’, 1950, AKSCC V/87. While the document sports neither Kętrzyński's name nor his initials, all available evidence points to his authorship.

81 Horodyński and Łubieński's security files can be found in the Archives of the Institute of National Remembrance (Archiwum Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej, AIPN): AIPN BU 00169/91/2 and AIPN BU 0648/118/1. See esp. Łubieński, ‘Ogólne sprawozdanie z pobytu w Paryżu w okresie od 1.XI do 14.XI.52’, AIPN BU 0648/118/1, 147–54.

82 Kunicki, Between the Brown and the Red, 93.

83 On Belgian progressive Catholicism, see Jadoulle, Jean-Louis, Chrétiens modernes? L’Engagement des intellectuels catholiques ‘progressistes’ belges de 1945 à 1958 (Louvain-la-Neuve: Academia Bruylant/Presses Universitaires de Louvain, 2003)Google Scholar; also the Aug.-Sept. 1953 special issue of the journal Routes de la Paix, esp. Constantin [Konstanty] Łubieński, ‘Un catholique polonais nous donne ses impressions’, Routes de la Paix 17–18 (1953), 36–7.

84 Deery, Philip, ‘The Dove Flies East: Whitehall, Warsaw and the 1950 World Peace Congress’, Australian Journal of Politics and History, 48, 4 (2002), 449–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ullrich, ‘Preventing “Peace”’, 7.

85 Second World Peace Congress, Warsaw, November 16–22, 1950, VOKS Bulletin Supplement, 66 (1951) (Warsaw, 1951).

86 ‘Notatka sprawozdawcza ze spotkania katolików, biorących udział w II Kongresie Pokoju’, Nov. 1950, AKSCC V/87.

87 McCormick, John P., Carl Schmitt's Critique of Liberalism: Against Politics as Technology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 213CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

88 Judt, Past Imperfect, 41.

89 Domenach to Kętrzyński, 10 Apr. 1950, AKSCC V/88.

90 On ‘generational events’, see, e.g. Feuer, Lewis S., The Conflict of Generations: The Character and Significance of Student Movements (New York: Basic Books, 1969), 2526Google Scholar; on Poland's ‘wartime generation’, see Rodak, Paweł, Wizje kultury pokolenia wojennego (Wrocław: Funna, 2000)Google Scholar.

91 Domenach to Kętrzyński, 30 Aug. 1950, AKSCC V/88.

92 Kętrzyński to Domenach, 5 Dec. 1950, AKSCC V/87.

93 Béguin to Łubieński, 17 Aug. 1951, AKSCC V/90.

94 The West German progressive-Christian Frankfurter Hefte journal editor Walter Dirks had nudged Domenach towards his activism. See Dirks to Domenach, 14 Apr. 1950, quoted in Martin Strickmann, ‘Französische Intellektuelle als deutsch-französische Mittlerfiguren 1944–1950’, in Patricia Oster and Hans-Jürgen Lüsebrink, eds, Am Wendepunkt: Deutschland und Frankreich um 1945: Zur Dynamik eines ‘transnationalen’ kulturellen Feldes / Dynamiques d’un champ culturel ‘transnational’: L’Allemagne et la France vers 1945 (Bielefeld: transcript, 2008), 17–49, at 42.

95 Domenach and Bruguier to [Kętrzyński], 10 Mar. 1952, AKSCC V/92.

96 On the Pleven Plan, see Sutton, Michael, France and the Construction of Europe, 1944–2007: The Geopolitical Imperative (New York: Berghahn Books, 2007), 6468Google Scholar.

97 ‘Document de Travail élaboré à l’occasion de la Conférence d’Odense en vue de la recherche d’une solution pacifique du problème allemand’, 15 Jun. 1952, AKSCC V/92. For a published (rev.) version of the document, see ‘Avertissement adopté à la Conférence d’Odense sur la solution du problème allemand’, Routes de la Paix, Jul. (1952), 10–11.

98 On Dąbrowski, see Nitecki, Piotr, Ksiądz Eugeniusz Dąbrowski, apostoł pisma świętego: 1901–1970 (Warsaw: ODiSS, 1982)Google Scholar.

99 Horodyński to Domenach, 20 Jul. 1953, IMEC ESP2.C1-02.06; Horodyński and Dłuski to Domenach, 26 Sept. 1953, IMEC ESP2.C1-02.06.

100 On Kaczmarek's arrest and show trial, see Śledzianowski, Jan, Ksiądz Czesław Kaczmarek – biskup kielecki 1895–1963 (Kielce: Kuria Diecezjalna, 1991), 225305Google Scholar.

101 ‘Doniosły zwrot’, Dziś i Jutro, 4 Oct. 1953. On Wyszyński's arrest and Dziś i Jutro/PAX's response to the event, see Kunicki, Between the Brown and the Red, 98–102.

102 Dominik Horodyński, ‘Nous faisons confiance à la France’, Aujourd’hui et demain (Dziś i Jutro), 25 Dec. 1953.

103 Domenach to Horodyński and Dłuski, 5 Jan. 1954, IMEC ESP2.C2-03.02; Domenach to Horodyński and Dłuski, 11 Feb. 1954, IMEC ESP2.C2-03.02. The quotation is drawn from the latter.

104 Krasiński to Domenach, 29 May 1954, AKSCC V/95.

105 Jean-Marie Domenach, Speech on the occasion of the conferral of the Włodzimierz Pietrzak Prize, Dziś i Jutro, 1 Aug. 1954.

106 Domenach to Stanisław Michalski, 2 Jul. 1954, IMEC ESP2.C2-03.02.

107 KOMUNIKAT, ‘Wręczenie Nagrody Pietrzaka’, Dziś i Jutro, 13 Jun. 1954; repr. in Zygmunt Lichniak, ed., Księga o nagrodzie imienia Włodzimierza Pietrzaka (1948–1972) (Warsaw: PAX, 1978), 91. See also Wojciech Kętrzyński, ‘Jean-Marie Domenach’, Dziś i Jutro, 18 Jul. 1954; ‘Jean-Marie Domenach laureatem nagrody im. Wł. Pietrzaka’, Dziś i Jutro, 1 Aug. 1954; Domenach, Speech on the occasion of the conferral of the Włodzimierz Pietrzak Prize.

108 Domenach, Speech on the occasion of the conferral of the Włodzimierz Pietrzak Prize.

109 Khrushchev, N. S., Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004–2007), III, 5564Google Scholar.

110 See Jean Lacroix, ‘Sens nowoczesnego ateizmu’, Dziś i Jutro, 8 May 1955; Henri Bartoli, ‘O cywilizację pracy’, Dziś i Jutro, 28 Aug. 1955.

111 See, e.g. Henri Bartoli's discussion of logistics for his visit: Bartoli to Wanda Urstein, 22 Sept. 1955, AKSCC V/98.

112 [Untitled front-cover note], Dziś i Jutro, 8 May 1955. The Vienna Appeal was issued by the World Council of Peace on 17–19 Jan. 1955.

113 On the condemnation, see Raina, Peter, Piasecki na indeksie watykańskim: Geneza sprawy (Warsaw: von Borowiecky, 2002)Google Scholar; Kunicki, Between the Brown and the Red, 102–5.

114 Antoni Dudek and Grzegorz Pytel have suggested this also explains Piasecki's abortive project of co-operation with the East German Christians: Antoni Dudek and Pytel, Grzegorz, Bolesław Piasecki: Próba biografii politycznej (London: Aneks, 1990), 212–14Google Scholar.

115 See, e.g. Dembiński, Ludwik, ‘The General Secretary “who came in from the cold”’, in Trisconi, Michela, ed., Mémoires engagées / Memorias comprometidas / Memories of committed persons (Fribourg: Pax Romana ICMICA/MIIC, 1997), 8998Google Scholar.

116 Kosicki, ‘L’Avènement des intellectuels catholiques’, 40–7.

117 The importance for Domenach of his personal relationships with Krasiński and Kętrzyński is clear in his correspondence from the time justifying his realignment – and his realignment of Esprit – with Więź: Domenach to Krasiński, 7 Jan. 1957, IMEC ESP2.C3-02.06; Domenach to Tadeusz Mazowiecki, 21 Mar. 1958, IMEC ESP2.C3-02.06.

118 Intrepid recent work includes, Nisonen-Trnka, Riikka, ‘The Prague Spring of Science: Czechoslovak Natural Scientists Reconsidering the Iron Curtain’, Europe-Asia Studies, 60, 10 (2008), 17491766CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pleskot, Patryk, Intelektualni sąsiedzi: Kontakty historyków polskich ze środowiskiem Annales 1945–1989 (Warsaw: IPN-KŚZpNP, 2010)Google Scholar; Kind-Kovács, Friederike and Labov, Jessie, eds, Samizdat, Tamizdat and Beyond: Transnational Media During and After Socialism (New York: Berghahn Books, 2013)Google Scholar; Koivunen, Pia, ‘Overcoming Cold War Boundaries at the World Youth Festivals’, in Autio-Sarasmo, Sari and Miklóssy, Katalin, eds, Reassessing Cold War Europe (London: Routledge, 2011), 175–92Google Scholar.