Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-24hb2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-26T12:10:31.480Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

MAYA HETERARCHY AS INFERRED FROM CLASSIC-PERIOD PLAZA PLANS

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2004

Marshall Joseph Becker
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, West Chester University, West Chester, PA 19383, USA

Abstract

Recognition of architectural patterning among groups of structures at lowland Maya sites dating from the Classic period provides insights into the ways that residences and ritual complexes were organized. Each structured group arrangement, or Plaza Plan (PP), reveals an architectural grammar that provides the database enabling us to predict urban as well as rural settlement patterns. Wide variations in sizes among examples of residential PPs suggests that heterarchy was an important aspect of Classic Maya society. Examination of PP2 at Tikal indicates that a heterarchic pattern of organization existed. Heterarchy may relate to the fragility of the structure of lowland Maya kingship, and this may explain the gradual demise of states during the Terminal Classic and Postclassic periods and their replacement by re-emergent Maya chiefdoms.

Type
SPECIAL SECTION: NEW PERSPECTIVES ON ANCIENT LOWLAND MAYA SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
Copyright
© 2004 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Adams, Richard E.W. 1982 Rank Size Analysis of Northern Belize Maya Sites. In Archaeology at Colha, Belize: The 1981 Interim Report, edited by Thomas R. Hester, Harry J. Shafer, and Jack D. Easton, pp. 6064. Center for Archaeological Research, University of Texas, San Antonio, and Centro Studi e Ricerche Ligabue, Venice.
Adams, Richard E.W., and Norman Hammond 1982 Maya Archaeology, 1976–1980: A Review of Major Publications. Journal of Field Archaeology 9:487512.Google Scholar
Adams, Richard E.W., and Richard C. Jones 1981 Spatial Patterns and Regional Growth Among Classic Maya Cities. American Antiquity 46:301322.Google Scholar
Arnold, J.E., and Annabel Ford 1980 A Statistical Examination of Settlement Patterns at Tikal, Guatemala. American Antiquity 45:713726.Google Scholar
Ashmore, Wendy 1987 Research at Quirigua, Guatemala: The Site-Periphery Program. In The Periphery of the Southeastern Classic Maya Realm, edited by Gary W. Pahl, pp. 215225. Latin American Center Publications, University of California, Los Angeles.
Ashmore, Wendy 1991 Site-Planning Principles and Concepts of Directionality Among the Ancient Maya. Latin American Antiquity 2:199226.Google Scholar
Ashmore, Wendy 1998 Monumentos políticos: Sitios, asentamiento, y paisaje por Xunantunich, Belice. In Anatomia de una civilización: Apoximaciones interdisciplinarias a la cultura Maya, edited by Andrés Ciudad Ruiz, Yolanda Fernandez Marquínez, José Miguel García Campillo, Maria Josefa Iglesias Ponce de Leon, Alfonso Lacadena García-Gallo, and Luis T. Sanz Castro, pp. 161183. Sociedad Española de Estudios Mayas, Madrid.
Ashmore, Wendy, and Gordon R. Willey 1981 A Historical Introduction to the Study of Lowland Maya Settlement Patterns. In Lowland Maya Settlement Patterns, edited by Wendy Ashmore, pp. 318. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Becker, Marshall J. 1971 The Identification of a Second Plaza Plan at Tikal, Guatemala and Its Implications for Ancient Maya Social Complexity. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI.
Becker, Marshall J. 1972 Plaza Plans at Quirigua, Guatemala: The Use of a Specific Theory Regarding Cultural Behavior in Predicting the Configuration of Group Arrangements and Burial Patterns in a Yet Untested Community Settlement Pattern. Katunob VIII(2):4762.Google Scholar
Becker, Marshall J. 1973 Archaeological Evidence for Occupational Specialization Among the Classic Period Maya at Tikal, Guatemala. American Antiquity 38:396406Google Scholar
Becker, Marshall J. 1979a Priests, Peasants and Ceremonial Centers: The Intellectual History of a Model. In Maya Archaeology and Ethnohistory, edited by Norman Hammond and Gordon R. Willey, pp. 320. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Becker, Marshall J. 1979b Plaza Plans and Research Strategies. Paper presented at the Meetings of the International Congress of Americanists, Vancouver, BC.
Becker, Marshall J. 1980 The Copan River Cut Project 1979: A Preliminary Report on Goals and Achievements. Report submitted to Dr. C. Baudez, Director, Proyecto Arqueologico Copan.
Becker, Marshall J. 1982 Ancient Maya Houses and Their Identification: An Evaluation of Architectural Groups at Tikal and Inferences Regarding Their Functions. Revista española de anthropología americana XII:111129.Google Scholar
Becker, Marshall J. 1986 Household Shrines at Tikal, Guatemala: Size as a Reflection of Economic Status. Revista española de antropología americana 16:8185.Google Scholar
Becker, Marshall J. 1988 Changing Views of the Changing Maya: Evolution and Devolution in an Ancient Society. Revista española de antropología americana 18:2135.Google Scholar
Becker, Marshall J. 1992 Burial as Caches, Caches as Burials: A New Interpretation of the Meaning of Ritual Deposits Among the Classic Period Lowland Maya. In New Theories on the Ancient Maya, edited by Elin C. Danien and Robert J. Sharer, pp. 185196. University Museum Monograph 77, Symposium Series Volume 3. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Becker, Marshall J. 1993 Earth Offerings Among the Classic Period Lowland Maya: Burials and Caches as Ritual Deposits. In Perspectivas antropologicas en el mundo maya, edited by Maria Josefa Iglesias Ponce de Leon and Francesc Ligorred Perramón. Publicaciones de la SEEM No. 2. Sociedad Española de Estudias Mayas, Madrid.
Becker, Marshall J. 1999 Tikal Report No. 21: Small Structure Excavations and the Definition of Plaza Plan 2. University Museum Monograph 104. University Museum Press, Philadelphia.
Becker, Marshall J. 2001 Houselots at Tikal, Guatemala: It's What's Out Back That Counts. In Reconstruyendo la ciudad maya: El urbanismo en las sociedades antiguas, edited by Andrés Ciudad Ruiz, Maria Josefa Iglesias Ponce de Leon, and M. Carmen Martínez Martínez, pp. 427460. Publicaciones de la SEEM. No. 6. Sociedad Española de Estudios Maya, Madrid.
Becker, Marshall J. 2003a Plaza Plans at Tikal: A Research Strategy for Inferring Social Organization and Processes of Culture Change at Lowland Maya Sites. In Tikal: Dynasties, Foreigners, and Affairs of State: Advancing Maya Archaeology, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff, pp. 253280. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe, NM.
Becker, Marshall J. 2003b A Classic Period Barrio Producing Fine Polychrome Ceramics at Tikal, Guatemala: The Search for Pottery Firing Sites in the Guatemalan Lowlands. Ancient Mesoamerica 14:95112.Google Scholar
Becker, Marshall J. 2004a Lowland Maya Houselots During the Classic Period. Ms on file, archives, West Chester University, West Chester, PA.
Becker, Marshall J. 2004b Plaza Plans and New Research Strategies in the Maya Lowlands: Contemporary Issues in the Study of Complex Society at Tikal, Guatemala. Ms on file, archives, West Chester University, West Chester, PA.
Brady, James E. 1997 Settlement Configuration and Cosmology. The Role of Caves at Dos Pilas. American Anthropologist 99:602618.Google Scholar
Bullard, William R. Jr. 1960 Maya Settlement Pattern in Northeastern Peten, Guatemala. American Antiquity 25:355372.Google Scholar
Carr, Robert F., and James E. Hazard 1961 Tikal Report No. 11: Map of the Ruins of Tikal, El Peten, Guatemala. Museum Monograph. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Chase, Arlen 1983 A Contextual Consideration of the Tayasal-Paxcaman Zone, El Petén, Guatemala. Doctoral dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Chase, Arlen F., and Diane Z. Chase 1994 Maya Veneration of the Dead at Caracol, Belize. In Seventh Palenque Round Table, 1989, edited by Merle G. Robertson and Virginia M. Fields, pp. 5562. Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, San Francisco.
Chase, Arlen F., and Diane Z. Chase 1996 More Than Kin and King: Centralized Political Organization Among the Late Classic Maya. Current Anthropology 37:803810.Google Scholar
Chase, Diane Z., and Arlen F. Chase 1998 The Architectural Context of Caches, Burials, and Other Ritual Activities for the Classic Period Maya (as Reflected at Caracol, Belize). In Function and Meaning in Classic Maya Architecture, edited by Stephen D. Houston, pp. 299332. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.
Coggins, Clemency C. 1980 The Shape of Time: Some Political Implications of a Four-Part Figure. American Antiquity 45:727739.Google Scholar
Crumley, Carole L. 1987 A Dialectical Critique of Hierarchy. In Power Relations and State Formation, edited by Thomas C. Patterson and Christine W. Gailey, pp. 155169. American Anthropological Association, Washington, DC.
Crumley, Carole L. 1995 Heterarchy and the Analysis of Complex Societies. In Heterarchy and the Analysis of Complex Societies, edited by Robert M. Ehrenreich, Carole L. Crumley, and Janet E. Levy, pp. 16. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association No. 6. Arlington, VA.
Crumley, Carole L. 2001 Communication, Holism, and the Evolution of Sociopolitical Complexity. In From Leaders to Rulers, edited by Jonathan Haas, pp. 1933. Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York.
Crumley, Carole L. 2003 Alternate Forms of Social Order. In Heterarchy, Political Economy, and the Ancient Maya: The Three Rivers Region of the East-Central Yucatan Peninsula, edited by Vernon L. Scarborough, Frank Valdez, Jr., and Nicholas P. Dunning, pp. 136145. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Doran, J.E., and F.R. Hodson 1975 Mathematics and Computers in Archaeology. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Ehrenreich, Robert, Carole L. Crumley, and Janet E. Levy (editors) 1995 Heterarchy and the Analysis of Complex Societies. Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association No. 6. Arlington, VA.
Eighmy, Jeffrey L. 1981 The Archaeological Significance of Counting Houses: Ethnoarchaeological Evidence. In Modern Material Culture: The Archaeology of Us, edited by Richard A. Gould and Michael B. Schiffer, pp. 225233. Academic Press, New York.
Fedick, Scott L. 1996 Introduction: New Perspectives on Ancient Maya Agriculture and Resource Use. In The Managed Mosaic: Ancient Maya Agriculture and Resource Use, edited by Scott L. Fedick, pp. 316. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.
Feinman, Gary M. 1995 The Emergence of Inequality: A Focus on Strategies and Processes. In Foundations of Social Inequality, edited by T.D. Price and Gary M. Feinman, pp. 255279. Plenum Press, New York.
Fletcher, Laraine A. 1978 Socioeconomic Implications of the Linear Features at Cobá, Quintana Roo, Mexico. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, State University of New York, Stony Brook.
Fletcher, Laraine A. 1983 Cobá and Mayapan: A Comparison of “Solares” and Household Variation. In Cobá: A Classical Maya Metropolis, edited by William J. Folan, Ellen R. Kintz, and Larraine A. Fletcher, pp. 200218. Academic Press, New York.
Fletcher, Laraine A., and James Gann 1995 Calakmul, Campeche: Patrón de asentamiento y demografía. In Seis ensayos sobre antiguos patrones de asentamientos en el area maya, edited by Ernesto Vargas Pacheco, pp. 5367. Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, Mexico City.
Fletcher, Laraine A., Jacinto May Hau, Lynda M. Florey Folan, and William J. Folan 1987 Un análisis estadístico preliminar del patrón de asentamiento de Calakmul. Universidad Autónoma del Sudeste, Campeche, Mexico.
Folan, William J. 1977 Informe interno números 2 e 3. Coba Proyecto Cartografico Arqueologico. Boletín de la Escuela de Ciencias Antropológicas de la Universidad de Yucatán 4(22–23):2971.Google Scholar
Folan, William J., Ellen R. Kintz, Laraine A. Fletcher, and Burma H. Hyde 1982 An Examination of Settlement Patterns at Cobá, Quintana Roo, Mexico and Tikal, Guatemala: A Reply to Arnold and Ford. American Antiquity 47:430436.Google Scholar
Fox, John W. 1981 The Late Postclassic Eastern Frontier of Meso-America: Cultural Innovation Along the Periphery. Current Anthropology 22:321346.Google Scholar
Fox, John W. 1987 Maya Postclassic State Formation: Segmentary Lineage Migration in Advancing Frontiers. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Freidel, David A. 1981a Continuity and Disjunction: Late Postclassic Settlement Patterns in Northern Yucatan. In Lowland Maya Settlement Patterns, edited by Wendy Ashmore, pp. 311332. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Freidel, David A. 1981b The Political Economics of Residential Dispersion Among the Lowland Maya. In Lowland Maya Settlement Patterns, edited by Wendy Ashmore, pp. 371382. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Freter, AnnCorinne 1994 The Classic Maya Collapse at Copan, Honduras: An Analysis of Rural Settlement. In Archaeological Views from the Countryside, edited by Glen M. Schwartz and Stephen E. Falconer, pp. 160176. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
Galindo, Juan 1920 A Description of the Ruins of Copan by Juan Galindo, in 1834. In The Inscriptions at Copan, edited by Sylvanus G. Morley and Appendix XI, pp. 593604. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication 219. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.
Gann, Thomas W.F. 1927 Maya Cities. Duckworth, London.
Gonlin, Nancy 1994 Rural Household Diversity in Late Classic Copan, Honduras. In Archaeological Views from the Countryside, edited by Glen M. Schwartz and Stephen E. Falconer, pp. 177197. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
Gordon, George Byron 1896 Prehistoric Ruins of Copan. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 1, No. 1. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Hageman, Jon B., and Jon C. Lohse 2003 Heterarchy, Corporate Groups, and Late Classic Resource Management in Northwestern Belize. In Heterarchy, Political Economics and the Ancient Maya: The Three Rivers Region on the East Central Yucatán Peninsula, edited by Vernon L. Scarborough, Frank Valdez, Jr., and Nicholas P. Dunning, pp. 109121. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Hammond, Norman 1978 The Myth of the Milpa: Agricultural Experiments in the Maya Lowlands. In Prehispanic Maya Agriculture, edited by Peter D. Harrison and Bruce L. Turner, pp. 2334. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Hammond, Norman 1992 Preclassic Maya Civilization. In New Theories on the Ancient Maya, edited by Elin C. Danien and Robert J. Sharer, pp. 137144. University Museum Monograph 77, Symposium Series Vol. 3. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Harrison, Peter D. 2003 The Central Acropolis of Tikal. In Tikal: Dynasties, Foreigners, and Affairs of State: Advancing Maya Archaeology, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff, pp. 171206. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe, NM.
Haviland, William A. 1963 Excavation of Small Structures in the Northeast Quadrant of Tikal, Guatemala. Doctoral dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI.
Haviland, William A. 1982 Where the Rich Folks Lived: Deranging Factors in the Statistical Analysis of Tikal Settlement. American Antiquity 47:427429.Google Scholar
Haviland, William A. 1988 Musical Hammocks at Tikal: Problems with Reconstructing Household Composition. In Household and Community in the Mesoamerican Past, edited by Richard R. Wilk and Wendy Ashmore, pp. 121134. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Haviland, William A. 1992 Status and Power in Classic Maya Society: The View from Tikal. American Anthropologist 94:937940.Google Scholar
Haviland, William A. 2004 Excavations in Residential Areas of Tikal: Non-Elite Residential Groups Without Shrines. Tikal Reports No. 20. University Museum Publications, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, in press.
Hendon, Julia A. 1991 Status and Power in Classic Maya Society: An Archaeological Study. American Anthropologist 93:894918.Google Scholar
Hendon, Julia A. 1992 Variation in Classic Maya Sociopolitical Organization. American Anthropologist 94:940941.Google Scholar
Hendrickson, Carole Elaine 1995 Weaving Identities: Construction of Dress and Self in a Highland Guatemalan Town. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Hirth, Kenneth G. 1994 The Household as an Analytical Unit: Problems in Method and Theory. In Prehispanic Domestic Units in Western Mesoamerica: Studies of the Household, Compound, and Residence, edited by Robert S. Santley and Kenneth G. Hirth, pp. 2136. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Houk, Brett A. 1996 The Archaeology of Site Planning: An Example from the Maya Site of Dos Hombres, Belize. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin.
Houston, Stephen D. (editor) 1998 Function and Meaning in Classic Maya Architecture. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.
Inomata, Takeshi, and Stephen D. Houston (editors) 2001 Royal Courts of the Ancient Maya. 2 vols. Westview Press, Boulder, CO.
Johnston, Kevin J., and Nancy Gonlin 1998 What Do Houses Mean? Approaches to the Analysis of Classic Maya Commoner Residences. In Function and Meaning in Classic Maya Architecture (a Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 1994), edited by Stephen D. Houston, pp. 141185. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.
King, Eleanor Mather 2000 The Organization of Late Classic Lithic Production at the Prehistoric Maya Site of Colha, Belize: A Study in Complexity and Heterarchy. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
King, Eleanor Mather, and Daniel K. Potter 1994 Small Sites in Prehistoric Maya Socioeconomic Organization: A Perspective from Colha, Belize. In Archaeological Views from the Countryside: Village Communities in Early Complex Societies, edited by Glen M. Schwartz and Stephen E. Falconer, pp. 6490. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
Laporte, Juan Pedro, and Maria Josefa Iglesias Ponce de Leon 1999 Más allá de mundo perdido: Investigación en grupos residenciales de Tikal. Mayab 12:3257.Google Scholar
Leventhal, Richard M. 1983 Household Groups and Classic Maya Religion. In Prehistoric Settlement Patterns: Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey, edited by Evon Z. Vogt and Richard M. Leventhol, pp. 5576. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, and Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Manzanilla, Linda, and Luis Barba 1990 The Study of Activities in Classic Households: Two Case Studies from Cobá and Teotihuacan. Ancient Mesoamerica 1:4149.Google Scholar
Marcus, Joyce 1995 Where Is Lowland Maya Archaeology Headed? Journal of Archaeological Research 3:353.Google Scholar
Martin, Paul S. 1971 The Revolution in Archaeology. American Antiquity 36:18.Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia A. 1993 The Economics of Social Power and Wealth Among Eighth Century Maya Households. In Lowland Maya Civilization in the Eighth Century A.D.: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks (1989), edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and John S. Henderson, pp. 6589. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, DC.
Moholy-Nagy, Hattula 2003 Beyond the Catalogue: The Chronology and Contexts of Tikal Artifacts. In Tikal: Dynasties, Foreigners, and Affairs of State: Advancing Maya Archaeology, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff, pp. 83110. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe, NM.
Moore, Jerry D. 1996 The Archaeology of Plazas and the Proxemics of Ritual: Three Andean Traditions. American Anthropologist 98:789802.Google Scholar
Morley, Sylvanus G. 1935 Guide Book to the Ruins of Quiriguá. Carnegie Institution of Washington Supplementary Publication No. 16. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.
Morley, Sylvanus G. 1937 The Inscriptions of Peten. 5 vols. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication 437, Part II. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.
Palka, Joel W. 1997 Reconstructing Classic Maya Socioeconomic Differentiation and the Collapse at Dos Pilas, Peten, Guatemala. Ancient Mesoamerica 8:293306.Google Scholar
Potter, Daniel K., and Eleanor Mather King 1995 A Heterarchichal Approach to Lowland Maya Socioeconomics. In Heterarchy and the Analysis of Complex Societies, edited by Robert M. Ehrenreich, Carole L. Crumley, and Janet E. Levy, pp. 1732. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association No. 6. Arlington, VA.
Puleston, Dennis E. 1983 Tikal Report 13: The Settlement Survey of Tikal. University Museum Monograph 48. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Pyburn, K. Anne 1989 Prehistoric Maya Community and Settlement at Holmul, Belize. BAR International Series 509. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.
Renfrew, Colin, and John F. Cherry (editors) 1986 Peer Polity Interaction and Socio-Political Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Rice, Don S., and Dennis E. Puleston 1981 Ancient Maya Settlement Patterns in the Peten, Guatemala. In Lowland Maya Settlement Patterns, edited by Wendy Ashmore, pp. 121156. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Rice, Don S., Prudence M. Rice, and Timothy Pugh 1998 Settlement Continuity and Change in the Central Peten Lakes Region: The Case of Zacpeten. In Anatomia de una civilizacion. Aproximaciones inter-disciplinaria a la cultura naya, edited by Andrés Ciudad Ruiz, Maria Josefa Iglesias Ponce de Leon, and M. Carmen Martínez Martínez, pp. 207252. Publicaciones de la SEEM No. 4. Sociedad Española de Estudios Maya, Madrid.
Satterthwaite, Linton Jr. 1937 Identification of Maya Temple Buildings at Piedras Negras. In Twenty-Fifth Anniversary Studies, Volume I, edited by Daniel S. Davidson, pp. 161177. Philadelphia Anthropological Society, Philadelphia.
Scarborough, Vernon L., Matthew E. Becher, Jeffrey L. Baker, Garry Harris, and Frank Valdez, Jr. 1995 Water and Land at the Ancient Maya Community of La Milpa. Latin American Antiquity 6:98119.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L., Robert P. Connolly, and Steven P. Ross 1994 The Pre-Hispanic Maya Reservoir System at Kinal, Peten, Guatemala. Ancient Mesoamerica 5:97106.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L., Frank Valdez, Jr., and Nicholas P. Dunning (editors) 2003 Heterarchy, Political Economy, and the Ancient Maya: The Three Rivers Region of the East-Central Yucatan Peninsula. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Sharer, Robert J. 2003 Tikal and the Copan Dynastic Founding. In Tikal: Dynasties, Foreigners, and Affairs of State, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff, pp. 319353. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe, NM.
Smith, A. Ledyard 1962 Mayapan, Yucatan, Mexico; Part 3: Residential and Associated Structures at Mayapan. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication 619. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.
Stark, Barbara L., and Philip J. Arnold III (editors) 1997 Olmec to Aztec: Settlement Patterns in the Ancient Gulf Lowlands. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Thompson, J. Eric S. 1931 Archaeological Investigations in the Southern Cayo District, “British Honduras.” Field Museum of Natural History Publication 274, Anthropological Series, Vol. 17, No. 3. Chicago.
Tourtellot, Gair III 1988 Excavations at Seibal, Department of Peten, Guatemala: Peripheral Survey and Excavation, Settlement and Community Patterns. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 16. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Trik, Aubrey S. 1963 The Splendid Tomb of Temple I at Tikal, Guatemala. Expedition 6(1):218.Google Scholar
Voorhies, Barbara 1996 The Transformation from Foraging to Farming in Lowland Mesoamerica. In The Managed Mosaic: Ancient Maya Agriculture and Resource Use, edited by Scott L. Fedick, pp. 1729. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.
Webster, David L. 1998 Classic Maya Architecture: Implications and Comparisons. In Function and Meaning in Classic Maya Archaeology, edited by Stephen D. Houston, pp. 547. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.
Webster, David L., Barbara W. Fash, Randolph Widmer, and Scott Zeleznik 1998 The Skyband Group: Investigations of a Classic Maya Elite Residential Complex at Copán, Honduras. Journal of Field Archaeology 25:319343.Google Scholar
Webster, David L., and AnnCorinne Freter 1990 Settlement History and the Classic Collapse at Copan: A Refined Chronological Perspective. Latin American Antiquity 1:6685.Google Scholar
Webster, David L., and Nancy Gonlin 1981 Household Remains of the Humblest Maya. Journal of Field Archaeology 15:169190.Google Scholar
Wilk, Richard R. 1988 Maya Household Organization: Evidence and Analogies. In Household and Community in the Mesoamerican Past, edited by Richard R. Wilk and Wendy Ashmore, pp. 135152. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Willey, Gordon R. 1982 Maya Archaeology. Science 215:260267.Google Scholar
Willey, Gordon R., and Richard M. Leventhal 1979 Prehistoric Settlement at Copan. In Maya Archaeology and Ethnohistory, edited by Norman Hammond and Gordon R. Willey, pp. 75102. University of Texas Press, Austin.