Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-xtgtn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-19T06:29:08.848Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Understanding and improving low bystander CPR rates: a systematic review of the literature

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 May 2015

Christian Vaillancourt ,
Ian G. Stiell  and
George A. Wells
Christian Vaillancourt*
Affiliation:
Ottawa Health Research Institute, Ottawa, Ont. Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ont.
Ian G. Stiell
Affiliation:
Ottawa Health Research Institute, Ottawa, Ont. Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ont.
George A. Wells
Affiliation:
Ottawa Health Research Institute, Ottawa, Ont. Department of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ont.
*
The Ottawa Hospital, Civic Campus, Clinical Epidemiology Unit, Rm. F658, 1053 Carling Ave, Ottawa ON K1Y 4E9; cvaillancourt@ohri.ca

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.
Objectives:

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a crucial yet weak link in the chain of survival for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. We sought to understand the determinants of bystander CPR and the factors associated with successful training.

Methods:

For this systematic review, we searched 11 electronic databases, 1 trial registry and 9 scientific websites. We performed hand searches and contacted 6 content experts. We reviewed without restriction all communications pertaining to who should learn CPR, what should be taught, when to repeat training, where to give CPR instructions and why people lack the motivation to learn and perform CPR. We used standardized forms to review papers for inclusion, quality and data extraction. We grouped publications by category and classified recommendations using a standardized classification system that was based on level of evidence.

Results:

We reviewed 2409 articles and selected 411 for complete evaluation. We included 252 of the 411 papers in this systematic review. Differences in their study design precluded a meta-analysis. We classified 22 recommendations; those with the highest scores were 1) 9-1-1 dispatch-assisted CPR instructions, 2) teaching CPR to family members of cardiac patients, 3) Braslow's self-training video, 4) maximizing time spent using manikins and 5) teaching the concepts of ambiguity and diffusion of responsibility. Recommendations not supported by evidence include mass training events, pulse taking prior to CPR by laymen and CPR using chest compressions alone.

Conclusion:

We evaluated and classified the potential impact of interventions that have been proposed to improve bystander CPR rates. Our results may help communities design interventions to improve their bystander CPR rates.

Résumé

RÉSUMÉObjectifs:

La réanimation cardio-respiratoire (RCR) est un maillon essentiel, quoique faible, de la chaîne de survie lors de la survenue d'un arrêt cardiaque hors de l'hôpital. Nous avons cherché à comprendre les déterminants du taux de passants pouvant administrer la RCR et les facteurs liés à une formation efficace.

Méthodes:

Dans le cadre de cette revue systématique, nous avons analysé 11 bases de données électroniques, un registre d'essais cliniques et neuf sites Web scientifiques. Nous avons réalisé des recherches manuelles et communiqué avec six experts du contenu. Nous avons examiné sans restriction toutes les communications portant sur les questions suivantes : qui devrait apprendre la RCR, ce qu'on devrait enseigner, QUAND la formation devrait être renouvelée, où les cours de RCR devraient être offerts et pourquoi les gens ne sont pas motivés à apprendre la RCR et à l'administrer. Nous avons utilisé des formulaires normalisés pour évaluer les articles selon des critères d'inclusion, de qualité et d'extraction de données. Nous avons regroupé les publications par catégorie et classé les recommandations selon un système de classification normalisé fondé sur le niveau de preuve.

Résultats:

Nous avons examiné 2409 articles et évalué le texte intégral de 411 d'entre eux. Notre revue systématique a porté sur 252 de ces 411 articles. En raison de différences dans la conception des études, nous n'avons pu réaliser une méta-analyse. Parmi les 22 recommandations que nous avons classées, voici celles qui ont obtenu la marque la plus élevée : 1) instructions de RCR données par un répartiteur 9-1-1; 2) enseignement de la RCR aux membres de la famille de cardiaques; 3) utilisation de la bande vidéo d'autoformation de Braslow; 4) augmentation du temps de pratique sur des mannequins; 5) enseignement des concepts d'ambiguïté et de diffusion de la responsabilité. Les recommandations non étayées par des preuves portaient sur les activités de formation en masse, la prise du pouls par un non-spécialiste avant de commencer la RCR et l'administration de la RCR avec compressions thoraciques seulement.

Conclusion:

Nous avons évalué et classé les diverses interventions proposées pour améliorer le taux de passants pouvant administrer la RCR ainsi que leur impact potentiel. Les résultats de l'étude aideront peut-être les collectivités à concevoir des modèles pour améliorer ce taux.

Keywords

cardiac arrestsystematic reviewcardiopulmonary resuscitation
Type
State of the Art • À la fine pointe
Information
Canadian Journal of Emergency Medicine , Volume 10 , Issue 1 , January 2008 , pp. 51 - 65
Copyright
Copyright © Canadian Association of Emergency Physicians 2008

References

1. Rea, TD, Eisenberg, MS, Sinibaldi, G, et al. Incidence of EMS-treated out-of-hospital cardiac arrest in the United States. Resuscitation 2004;63:17–24.Google Scholar
2. Vaillancourt, C, Stiell, IG; Canadian Cardiovascular Outcomes Research Team (CCORT). Cardiac arrest care and emergency medical services in Canada. Can J Cardiol 2004;20:1081–90.Google Scholar
3. Stiell, IG, Wells, GA, Field, B, et al. Advanced cardiac life support in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med 2004;351:647–56.Google Scholar
4. Herlitz, J, Ekstrom, L, Wennerblom, B, et al. Effect of bystander initiated cardiopulmonary resuscitation on ventricular fibrillation and survival after witnessed cardiac arrest outside hospital. Br Heart J 1994;72:408–12.Google Scholar
5. Larkin, GL, Marco, CA. Who knows CPR?: a national survey. Acad Emerg Med 2001;8:434–5.Google Scholar
6. Fong, YT, Anantharaman, V, Lim, SH, et al.Mass cardiopulmonary resuscitation 99-survey results of a multi-organisational effort in public education in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Resuscitation 2001;49:201–5.Google Scholar
7. Pane, GA, Salness, KA. A survey of participants in a mass CPR training course. Ann Emerg Med 1987;16:1112–6.Google Scholar
8. Selby, ML, Kautz, JA, Moore, TJ, et al. Indicators of response to a mass media CPR recruitment campaign. Am J Public Health 1982;72:1039–42.Google Scholar
9. Pearn, J, Dawson, B, Leditschke, F, et al. Who accepts first aid training? Aust Fam Physician 1980;9:602–5.Google Scholar
10. Eisenberg, M, Damon, S, Mandel, L, et al. CPR instruction by videotape: results of a community project. Ann Emerg Med 1995;25:198–202.Google Scholar
11. Alderman, C. Emergency bystander life support training. Emerg Nurse 1997;5:10–1.Google Scholar
12. Eisenberg, MS, Bergner, L, Hallstrom, A. Cardiac resuscitation in the community. Importance of rapid provision and implications for program planning. JAMA 1979;241:1905–7.Google Scholar
13. Standards and guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) and Emergency Cardiac Care (ECC). National Academy of Sciences – National Research Council. JAMA 1986;255:2905–89.Google Scholar
14. Arntz, HR, Staedecke-Peine, C, Brueggemann, T, et al. [Sudden cardiac death: Is it really an unforeseeable event?] [Article in German]. Intensivmed Notfallmed 1999;36:485–92.Google Scholar
15. Axelsson, A, Thoren, A, Holmberg, S, et al. Attitudes of trained Swedish lay rescuers toward CPR performance in an emergency. A survey of 1012 recently trained CPR rescuers. Resuscitation 2000;44:27–36.Google Scholar
16. Bachman, JW. The Good Neighbor Rescue Program: utilizing volunteers to perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation in a rural community. J Fam Pract 1983;16:561–6.Google Scholar
17. Bahr, J. CPR education in the community. Eur J Emerg Med 1994;1:190–2.Google Scholar
18. Baskett, PJ. Teaching the public cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Br J Hosp Med 1992;48:447, 451.Google Scholar
19. Chehardy, P, Doherty, A, Dracup, K, et al. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Education. Ann Emerg Med 2001;37(4 Suppl):S49-59.Google Scholar
20. Jackson, RE, Swor, RA. Who gets bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation in a witnessed arrest? Acad Emerg Med 1997;4:540–4.Google Scholar
21. Lie, KG, Richardson, M. Attitudes of health professionals toward cardiopulmonary resuscitation training for family members of cardiac patients. Coron Health Care 1999;3(2):91–8.Google Scholar
22. Chu, KH, May, CR, Clark, MJ, et al. CPR training in households of patients with chest pain. Resuscitation 2003;57:257–68.Google Scholar
23. Amith, G. Revising educational requirements: challenging four hours for both basic life support and automated external defibrillators. New Horiz 1997;5:167–72.Google Scholar
24. Eisenburger, P, Safar, P. Life supporting first aid training of the public-review and recommendations. Resuscitation 1999;41:3–18.Google Scholar
25. Mancini, ME, Kaye, W. Resuscitation training: a time for reassessment. J Cardiovasc Nurs 1996;10:71–84.Google Scholar
26. DeMuth, WE Jr, Saunders, EF. Public education in emergency medical services. Pa Med 1975;78:49–52.Google Scholar
27. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on School Health. Basic life support training school. Pediatrics 1993;91:158–9.Google Scholar
28. Lyttle, J. Mandatory CPR training for students may improve cardiac-arrest survival rate, MDs say. CMAJ 1996;155:1172–4.Google Scholar
29. Lafferty, C, Larsen, PD, Galletly, D. Resuscitation teaching in New Zealand schools. N Z Med J 2003;116:U582.Google Scholar
30. Eisenberg, MS, Hallstrom, AP, Carter, WB, et al. Emergency CPR instruction via telephone. Am J Public Health 1985;75:47–50.Google Scholar
31. Culley, LL, Clark, JJ, Eisenberg, MS, et al. Dispatcher-assisted telephone CPR: common delays and time standards for delivery. Ann Emerg Med 1991;20:362–6.Google Scholar
32. Sekimoto, M, Noguchi, Y, Rahman, M, et al. Estimating the effect of bystander-initiated cardiopulmonary resuscitation in Japan. Resuscitation 2001;50:153–60.Google Scholar
33. Moher, D, Pham, B, Jones, A, et al. Does quality of reports of randomised trials affect estimates of intervention efficacy reported in meta-analysis? Lancet 1998;352:609–13.Google Scholar
34. Brodsky, L. The association between estrogen-progestin replacement therapy and the risk of breast cancer among post-menopausal women: a systematic review and meta-analysis [thesis]. Ottawa (ON):University of Ottawa; 2002.Google Scholar
35. Dinnes, J, Deeks, J, Sowden, A, et al. A review of quality assessment tools for non-randomized intervention studies. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the International Society of Technology Assessment in Health Care. Philadelphia (PA): International Society of Technology Assessment in Health Care; 2001.Google Scholar
36. Wells, GA, Shea, B, O’Connell, D, et al. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for assessing the quality of non-randomized studies in meta-analysis. Proceedings of the 3rd Symposium for systematic reviews. Oxford (UK); 2000.Google Scholar
37. Lowe, HJ, Barnett, GO. Understanding and using the medical subject headings (MeSH) vocabulary to perform literature searches. JAMA 1994;271:1103–8.Google Scholar
38. Jabbour, M, Osmond, MH, Klassen, TP. Life support courses: are they effective? Ann Emerg Med 1996;28:690–8.Google Scholar
39. Mejicano, GC, Maki, DG. Infections acquired during cardiopulmonary resuscitation: estimating the risk and defining strategies for prevention. Ann Intern Med 1998;129:813–28.Google Scholar
40. Lester, C, Donnelly, P, Assar, D. Community life support training: does it attract the right people? Public Health 1997;111:293–6.Google Scholar
41. Pane, GA, Salness, KA. Targeted recruitment of senior citizens and cardiac patients to a mass CPR training course. Ann Emerg Med 1989;18:152–4.Google Scholar
42. Lerner, EB, Fairbanks, RJ, Shah, MN. Identification of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest clusters using a geographic information system. Acad Emerg Med 2005;12:81–4.Google Scholar
43. Axelsson, A, Herlitz, J, Ekstrom, L, et al. Bystander-initiated cardiopulmonary resuscitation out-of-hospital. A first description of the bystanders and their experiences. Resuscitation 1996;33:3–11.Google Scholar
44. Brennan, RT, Braslow, A. Are we training the right people yet? A survey of participants in public cardiopulmonary resuscitation classes. Resuscitation 1998;37:21–5.Google Scholar
45. Swor, R, Compton, S. Estimating cost-effectiveness of mass cardiopulmonary resuscitation training strategies to improve survival from cardiac arrest in private locations. Prehosp Emerg Care 2004;8:420–3.Google Scholar
46. Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada. Instructor resource for basic life support. Ottawa (ON): Desktop Publishing; 2001.Google Scholar
47. Kelly, KJ. Teaching and credentialing the physically challenged: state of the art. A review of change in the clinical and scientific data since 1980. Circulation 1986;74:IV66-9.Google Scholar
48. Memon, AM, Salzer, JE, Hillman, EC Jr, et al. Fatal myocardial infarct following CPR training: the question of risk. Ann Emerg Med 1982;11:322–3.Google Scholar
49. Bachman, JW. Cardiac arrest in the community. How to improve survival rates. Postgrad Med 1984;76:85–90, 92–5.Google Scholar
50. Baubin, M, Schirmer, M, Nogler, M, et al. Rescuer’s work capacity and duration of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Resuscitation 1996;33:135–9.Google Scholar
51. Bridgewater, FH, Bridgewater, KJ, Zeitz, CJ. Using the ability to perform CPR as a standard of fitness: a consideration of the influence of aging on the physiological responses of a select group of first aiders performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Resuscitation 2000;45:97–103.Google Scholar
52. Lucia, A, de las Heras, JF, Perez, M, et al. The importance of physical fitness in the performance of adequate cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Chest 1999;115:158–64.Google Scholar
53. Van Hoeyweghen, RJ, Verbruggen, G, Rademakers, F, et al. The physiologic response of CPR training. Ann Emerg Med 1991;20:279–82.Google Scholar
54. Swor, RA, Jackson, RE, Walters, BL, et al. Impact of lay responder actions on out-of-hospital cardiac arrest outcome. Prehosp Emerg Care 2000;4:38–42.Google Scholar
55. Waalewijn, RA, Tijssen, JG, Koster, RW. Bystander initiated actions in out-of-hospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation: results from the Amsterdam Resuscitation Study (ARRESUST). Resuscitation 2001;50:273–9.Google Scholar
56. Swor, RA, Jackson, RE, Compton, S, et al. Cardiac arrest in private locations: different strategies are needed to improve outcome. Resuscitation 2003;58:171–6.Google Scholar
57. Kivela, SL. Resuscitation skills among the population. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1982;26:626–7.Google Scholar
58. Lyda, KK, Perez, MA, Chng, CL. Cardiorespiratory resuscitation training among individuals aged 60 and above. Am J Health Behav 1998;22(1):54–61.Google Scholar
59. Mandel, LP, Cobb, LA, Weaver, WD. CPR training for patients’ families: do physicians recommend it? Am J Public Health 1987;77:727–8.Google Scholar
60. Swor, RA, Jackson, RE, Vining, F, et al. Elder-perceived self-efficacy and attitudes toward CPR training. Acad Emerg Med 2001;8:435.Google Scholar
61. Swor, R, Fahoome, G, Compton, S. Potential impact of a targeted cardiopulmonary resuscitation program for older adults on survival from private-residence cardiac arrest. Acad Emerg Med 2005;12:7–12.Google Scholar
62. Dracup, K, Guzy, PM, Taylor, SE, et al. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) training. Consequences for family members of high-risk cardiac patients. Arch Intern Med 1986;146:1757–61.Google Scholar
63. Dracup, K, Moser, DK, Taylor, SE, et al. The psychological consequences of cardiopulmonary resuscitation training for family members of patients at risk for sudden death. Am J Public Health 1997;87:1434–9.Google Scholar
64. McLauchlan, CA, Ward, A, Murphy, NM, et al. Resuscitation training for cardiac patients and their relatives – its effect on anxiety. Resuscitation 1992;24:7–11.Google Scholar
65. Moser, DK, Dracup, K. Impact of cardiopulmonary resuscitation training on perceived control in spouses of recovering cardiac patients. Res Nurs Health 2000;23:270–8.Google Scholar
66. Nelson, KM. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation training for families of cardiac patients. Cardiovasc Nurs 1979;15:28–32.Google Scholar
67. Feero, S, Hedges, JR, Stevens, P. Assessing the need for bystander CPR training. Acad Emerg Med 1995;2:74–6.Google Scholar
68. Knapp, JF, Pyles, LA, American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Pediatric Emergency Medicine. Role of pediatricians in advocating life support training courses for parents and the public. Pediatrics 2004;114:1676.Google Scholar
69. Lam, KK, Lau, FL, Chan, WK, et al. Doctor-based basic cardiopulmonary resuscitation course: an alternative to the conventional approach. Prehospital Disaster Med 2002;17:209–12.Google Scholar
70. Bossaert, LL, Putzeys, T, Monsieurs, KG, et al. Knowledge, skills and counselling behaviour of Belgian general practitioners on CPR-related issues. Resuscitation 1992;24:49–54.Google Scholar
71. Goldberg, RJ, DeCosimo, D, St Louis, P, et al. Physicians’ attitudes and practices toward CPR training in family members of patients with coronary heart disease. Am J Public Health 1985;75:281–3.Google Scholar
72. Higgins, SS, Hardy, CE, Higashino, SM. Should parents of children with congenital heart disease and life-threatening dysrhythmias be taught cardiopulmonary resuscitation? Pediatrics 1989;84:1102–4.Google Scholar
73. Richardson, ME, Lie, KG. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation training for family members of patients on cardiac rehabilitation programmes in Scotland. Resuscitation 1999;40:11–9.Google Scholar
74. Louis, P, Carter, WB, Eisenberg, MS. Prescribing CPR: a survey of physicians. Am J Public Health 1982;72:1158–60.Google Scholar
75. Kohriyama, K, Kamochi, M, Aibara, K, et al. [Occupational physicians’ concern and fact-finding methods regarding cardiopulmonary resuscitation education for employees in the workplace] [Article in Japanese]. J UOEH 1995;17:105–11.Google Scholar
76. Vanderschmidt, H, Burnap, TK, Thwaites, JK. Evaluation of a cardiopulmonary resuscitation course for secondary schools. Med Care 1975;13:763–74.Google Scholar
77. Bircher, N, Safar, P. Life supporting first aid (LSFA) and Infant CPR (ICPR) self-training in children [abstract]. 2Crit Care Med 1983;11:251.Google Scholar
78. Alvarez, HD, Cobb, LA. Experiences with CPR training of the general public. In: National Conference on Standards for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiac Care. Dallas (TX): American Heart Association; 1975. p. 33–7.Google Scholar
79. Berkebile, P, Benson, D, Ersoz, C, et al. Public education in heart-lung resuscitation. Evaluation of three self-training methods in teenagers. In: National Conference on Standards for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiac Care. Dallas (TX): American Heart Association; 1975. p. 13–23.Google Scholar
80. Lewis, RM, Fulstow, R, Smith, GB. The teaching of cardiopulmonary resuscitation in schools in Hampshire. Resuscitation 1997;35:27–31.Google Scholar
81. Liberman, M, Golberg, N, Mulder, D, et al. Teaching cardiopulmonary resuscitation to CEGEP students in Quebec – a pilot project. Resuscitation 2000;47:249–57.Google Scholar
82. Lind, B. Teaching mouth-to-mouth resuscitation in primary schools. Acta Anaesthiol Scan 1961;9(Suppl):63–9.Google Scholar
83. Van Kerschaver, E, Delooz, HH, Moens, GF. The effectiveness of repeated cardiopulmonary resuscitation training in a school population. Resuscitation 1989;17:211–22.Google Scholar
84. Watson, LA. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation competencies of nurses and ninth grade students. Dissertation Abstracts International 1980;41:3896.Google Scholar
85. Sherif, C, Erdos, J, Sohm, M, et al. Effectiveness of mouth-to-mouth resuscitation performed by young adolescents on a mannequin. Am J Emerg Med 2005;23:51–4.Google Scholar
86. Lester, CA, Weston, CF, Donnelly, PD, et al. The need for wider dissemination of CPR skills: are schools the answer? Resuscitation 1994;28:233–7.Google Scholar
87. Bednar, RJ. Retention of hospital-taught cardiopulmonary resuscitation skills of caregivers with infants at home on apnea/bradycardia monitors. Masters Abstracts International 1996;34:713.Google Scholar
88. Komelasky, AL. The effect of home nursing visits on parental anxiety and CPR knowledge retention of parents of apneamonitored infants. J Pediatr Nurs 1990;5:387–92.Google Scholar
89. Conroy, R, Bond, M, Tao, B. Teaching infant resuscitation skills to mothers. Aust J Adv Nurs 1990;7:11–5.Google Scholar
90. Donaher-Wagner, BM, Braun, DH. Infant cardiopulmonary resuscitation for expectant and new parents. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs 1992;17:27–8.Google Scholar
91. McHugh, A. Babywatch. Training parents in resuscitation for newborn babies. Pract Midwife 2000;3:16–7.Google Scholar
92. Wright, S, Norton, C, Kesten, K. Retention of infant CPR instruction by parents. Pediatr Nurs 1989;15:37–41, 44.Google Scholar
93. Messmer, P, Meehan, R, Gilliam, N, et al. Teaching infant CPR to mothers of cocaine-positive infants. J Contin Educ Nurs 1993;24:217–20.Google Scholar
94. Kaiserman, K, Martin, GI, Sindel, BC, et al. The effectiveness of a cardiopulmonary resuscitation program for mothers of newborn infants. J Perinatol 1989;9:49–51.Google Scholar
95. Longo, A. Teaching parents CPR. Pediatr Nurs 1983;9:445–7.Google Scholar
96. Drake, E. Discharge teaching needs of parents in the NICU. Neonatal Netw 1995;14:49–53.Google Scholar
97. Schlessel, JS, Rappa, HA, Lesser, M, et al. CPR knowledge, self-efficacy, and anticipated anxiety as functions of infant/child CPR training. Ann Emerg Med 1995;25:618–23.Google Scholar
98. Donnelly, P, Assar, D, Lester, C. A comparison of manikin CPR performance by lay persons trained in three variations of basic life support guidelines. Resuscitation 2000;45:195–9.Google Scholar
99. Yakel, ME. Retention of cardiopulmonary resuscitation skills among nursing personnel: what makes the difference? Heart Lung 1989;18:520–5.Google Scholar
100. Assar, D, Chamberlain, D, Colquhoun, M, et al. A rationale for staged teaching of basic life support. Resuscitation 1998;39:137–43.Google Scholar
101. Assar, D, Chamberlain, D, Colquhoun, M, et al. Randomised controlled trials of staged teaching for basic life support. 1. Skill acquisition at bronze stage. Resuscitation 2000;45:7–15.Google Scholar
102. Chamberlain, D, Smith, A, Colquhoun, M, et al. Randomised controlled trials of staged teaching for basic life support. 2. Comparison of CPR performance and skill retention using either staged instruction or conventional training. Resuscitation 2001;50:27–37.Google Scholar
103. Tweed, WA, Wilson, E, Isfeld, B. Retention of cardiopulmonary resuscitation skills after initial overtraining. Crit Care Med 1980;8:651–3.Google Scholar
104. Gombeski, WR Jr, Effron, DM, Ramirez, AG, et al. Impact on retention: comparison of two CPR training programs. Am J Public Health 1982;72:849–52.Google Scholar
105. Handley, JA, Handley, AJ. Four-step CPR-improving skill retention. Resuscitation 1998;36:3–8.Google Scholar
106. Daiker, BL. Evaluating health and safety lectures: how to measure lucidity. AAOHN J 1992;40:438–45.Google Scholar
107. Brennan, RT. Student, instructor, and course factors predicting achievement in CPR training classes. Am J Emerg Med 1991;9:220–4.Google Scholar
108. Cobb, LA, Eliastam, M, Kerber, RE, et al. Report of the American Heart Association Task Force on the Future of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation. Circulation 1992;85:2346–55.Google Scholar
109. Bosma, A. A comparison of three behavioral systems for assessing and training first aid skills. Dissertation Abstracts International 1989;50:899–900.Google Scholar
110. Kittleson, MJ. Analysis and comparison of cardiopulmonary resuscitation methodology among college students (time on task, spectrum, psychomotor skills). Dissertation Abstracts International 1986;47:1199.Google Scholar
111. Rivera-Tovar, LA, Jones, RT. Effect of elaboration on the acquisition and maintenance of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. J Pediatr Psychol 1990;15:123–38.Google Scholar
112. Messmer, PR, Jones, SG. Saving lives. An innovative approach for teaching CPR. Nurs Health Care Perspect 1998;19:108–10.Google Scholar
113. Kaye, W, Mancini, ME. Teaching adult resuscitation in the United States – time for a rethink. Resuscitation 1998;37:177–87.Google Scholar
114. Wik, L, Steen, PA, Bircher, NG. Quality of bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation influences outcome after prehospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation 1994;28:195–203.Google Scholar
115. Ochoa, FJ, Ramalle-Gomara, E, Carpintero, JM, et al. Competence of health professionals to check the carotid pulse. Resuscitation 1998;37:173–5.Google Scholar
116. Ruppert, M, Reith, MW, Widmann, JH, et al. Checking for breathing: evaluation of the diagnostic capability of emergency medical services personnel, physicians, medical students, and medical laypersons. Ann Emerg Med 1999;34:720–9.Google Scholar
117. Moule, P. Checking the carotid pulse: diagnostic accuracy in students of the healthcare professions. Resuscitation 2000;44:195–201.Google Scholar
118. Eberle, B, Dick, WF, Schneider, T, et al. Checking the carotid pulse check: diagnostic accuracy of first responders in patients with and without a pulse. Resuscitation 1996;33:107–16.Google Scholar
119. Bahr, J, Klingler, H, Panzer, W, et al. Skills of lay people in checking the carotid pulse. Resuscitation 1997;35:23–6.Google Scholar
120. Phillips, B, Zideman, D, Garcia-Castrillo, L, et al. European Resuscitation C. European Resuscitation Council Guidelines 2000 for Basic Paediatric Life Support. A statement from the Paediatric Life Support Working Group and approved by the Executive Committee of the European Resuscitation Council. Resuscitation 2001;48:223–9.Google Scholar
121. Swor, R, Compton, S, Vining, F, et al. A randomized controlled trial of chest compression only CPR for older adults – a pilot study. Resuscitation 2003;58:177–85.Google Scholar
122. Dick, WF, Brambrink, AM, Kern, T. [“Topless” cardiopulmonary resuscitation? Should heart-lung resuscitation be preformed without artificial resuscitation?] [Article in German]. Anaesthesist 1999;48:290–300.Google Scholar
123. Kern, KB. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation without ventilation. Crit Care Med 2000;28(11 Suppl):N186-9.Google Scholar
124. Noc, M, Weil, MH, Tang, W, et al. Mechanical ventilation may not be essential for initial cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Chest 1995;108:821–7.Google Scholar
125. Kern, KB, Hilwig, RW, Berg, RA, et al. Importance of continuous chest compressions during cardiopulmonary resuscitation: improved outcome during a simulated single lay-rescuer scenario. Circulation 2002;105:645–9.Google Scholar
126. Dorph, E, Wik, L, Stromme, TA, et al. Oxygen delivery and return of spontaneous circulation with ventilation:compression ratio 2:30 versus chest compressions only CPR in pigs. Resuscitation 2004;60:309–18.Google Scholar
127. Bircher, N, Otto, C, Babbs, C, et al. Future directions for resuscitation research. II. External cardiopulmonary resuscitation basic life support. Resuscitation 1996;32:63–75.Google Scholar
128. Stewart, JA. Resuscitating an idea: prone CPR. Resuscitation 2002;54:231–6.Google Scholar
129. Van Hoeyweghen, RJ, Bossaert, LL, Mullie, A, et al. Quality and efficiency of bystander CPR. Belgian Cerebral Resuscitation Study Group. Resuscitation 1993;26:47–52.Google Scholar
130. Holmberg, M, Holmberg, S, Herlitz, J. Swedish Cardiac Arrest R. Factors modifying the effect of bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation on survival in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest patients in Sweden. Eur Heart J 2001;22:511–9.Google Scholar
131. Hallstrom, AP. Dispatcher-assisted “phone” cardiopulmonary resuscitation by chest compression alone or with mouth-to-mouth ventilation. Crit Care Med 2000;28(11 Suppl):N190-2.Google Scholar
132. Roppolo, LP, Pepe, PE, Cimon, N, et al. Modified cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) instruction protocols for emergency medical dispatchers: rationale and recommendations. Resuscitation 2005;65:203–10.Google Scholar
133. Mandel, LP, Cobb, LA. Reinforcing CPR skills without mannequin practice. Ann Emerg Med 1987;16:1117–20.Google Scholar
134. Sunde, K, Wik, L, Naess, AC, et al. Impact of a child first aid wall calendar on lay people’s skills and knowledge of infant CPR. Resuscitation 1998;36:59–64.Google Scholar
135. Winchell, S, Safar, P. Teaching and testing lay and paramedical personnel in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Anesth Analg 1966; 45:441–9.Google Scholar
136. Rubens, AJ, Merlin, M. ‘Practical CPR’ may ease new-student anxieties. Occup Health Saf 1991;60:28–32.Google Scholar
137. Korttila, K, Vertio, H, Savolainen, K. Importance of using proper techniques to teach cardiopulmonary resuscitation to laymen. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1979;23:235–41.Google Scholar
138. Wik, L, Thowsen, J, Steen, PA. An automated voice advisory manikin system for training in basic life support without an instructor. A novel approach to CPR training. Resuscitation 2001;50:167–72.Google Scholar
139. Noordergraaf, GJ, Van Gelder, JM, Van Kesteren, RG, et al. Learning cardiopulmonary resuscitation skills: does the type of mannequin make a difference? Eur J Emerg Med 1997;4:204–9.Google Scholar
140. Boyle, AJ, Wilson, AM, Connelly, K, et al. Improvement in timing and effectiveness of external cardiac compressions with a new non-invasive device: the CPR-Ezy. Resuscitation 2002;54:63–7.Google Scholar
141. Dracup, K, Breu, C. Teaching and retention of cardiopulmonary resuscitation skills for families of high-risk patients with cardiac disease. Focus Crit Care 1987;14:67–72.Google Scholar
142. Maibach, EW, Schieber, RA, Carroll, MF. Self-efficacy in pediatric resuscitation: implications for education and performance. Pediatrics 1996;97:94–9.Google Scholar
143. Bilger, MC, Giesen, BC, Wollan, PC, et al. Improved retention of the EMS activation component (EMSAC) in adult CPR education. Resuscitation 1997;35:219–24.Google Scholar
144. Friesen, L, Stotts, NA. Retention of Basic Cardiac Life Support content: the effect of two teaching methods. J Nurs Educ 1984;23:184–91.Google Scholar
145. Coleman, S, Dracup, K, Moser, DK. Comparing methods of car-diopulmonary resuscitation instruction on learning and retention. J Nurs Staff Dev 1991;7:82–7.Google Scholar
146. Nelson, M, Brown, CG. CPR instruction: modular versus lecture course. Ann Emerg Med 1984;13:118–21.Google Scholar
147. Monsieurs, KG, Vogels, C, Bossaert, LL, et al. Learning effect of a novel interactive basic life support CD: the JUST system. Resuscitation 2004;62:159–65.Google Scholar
148. Batcheller, AM, Brennan, RT, Braslow, A, et al. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation performance of subjects over forty is better following half-hour video self-instruction compared to traditional four-hour classroom training. Resuscitation 2000;43:101–10.Google Scholar
149. Breivik, H, Ulvik, NM, Blikra, G, et al. Life-supporting first aid self-training. Crit Care Med 1980;8:654–8.Google Scholar
150. Edwards, MJ, Hannah, KJ. An examination of the use of interactive videodisc cardiopulmonary resuscitation instruction for the lay community. Comput Nurs 1985;3:250–2.Google Scholar
151. Long, CA. Teaching parents infant CPR-lecture or audiovisual tape? MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs 1992;17:30–2.Google Scholar
152. Moser, DK, Dracup, K, Doering, LV. Effect of cardiopulmonary resuscitation training for parents of high-risk neonates on perceived anxiety, control, and burden. Heart Lung 1999;28:326–33.Google Scholar
153. Starr, LM. An effective CPR home learning system. A program evaluation. AAOHN J 1998;46:289–95.Google Scholar
154. Dracup, K, Moser, DK, Doering, LV, et al. Comparison of cardiopulmonary resuscitation training methods for parents of infants at high risk for cardiopulmonary arrest. Ann Emerg Med 1998;32:170–7.Google Scholar
155. Dracup, K, Moser, DK, Doering, LV, et al. A controlled trial of cardiopulmonary resuscitation training for ethnically diverse parents of infants at high risk for cardiopulmonary arrest. Crit Care Med 2000;28:3289–95.Google Scholar
156. Braslow, A, Brennan, RT, Newman, MM, et al. CPR training without an instructor: development and evaluation of a video self-instructional system for effective performance of car-diopulmonary resuscitation. Resuscitation 1997;34:207–20.Google Scholar
157. Todd, KH, Braslow, A, Brennan, RT, et al. Randomized, controlled trial of video self-instruction versus traditional CPR training. Ann Emerg Med 1998;31:364–9.Google Scholar
158. Todd, KH, Heron, SL, Thompson, M, et al. Simple CPR: A randomized, controlled trial of video self-instructional cardiopulmonary resuscitation training in an African American church congregation. Ann Emerg Med 1999;34:730–7.Google Scholar
159. Schnepp, SL. Saving lives through community education. J Emerg Med 2001;20:325–6.Google Scholar
160. Wik, L, Brennan, RT, Braslow, A. A peer-training model for instruction of basic cardiac life support. Resuscitation 1995;29:119–28.Google Scholar
161. Lester, C, Donnelly, P, Weston, C. Is peer tutoring beneficial in the context of school resuscitation training? Health Educ Res 1997;12:347–54.Google Scholar
162. Toms, RJM. The effects of peer coaching on psychomotor skill retention in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: the Sciences & Engineering 1998;59(5-B).Google Scholar
163. Shantzis, C. An investigation comparing retention of two methods of cardiopulmonary resuscitation training. Dissertation Abstracts International 1983;44:2053.Google Scholar
164. Berden, HJ, Willems, FF, Hendrick, JM, et al. How frequently should basic cardiopulmonary resuscitation training be repeated to maintain adequate skills? BMJ 1993;306:1576–7.Google Scholar
165. Kaczorowski, J, Levitt, C, Hammond, M, et al. Retention of neonatal resuscitation skills and knowledge: a randomized controlled trial. Fam Med 1998;30:705–11.Google Scholar
166. Su, E, Schmidt, TA, Mann, NC, et al. A randomized controlled trial to assess decay in acquired knowledge among paramedics completing a pediatric resuscitation course. Acad Emerg Med 2000;7:779–86.Google Scholar
167. Ward, P, Johnson, LA, Mulligan, NW, et al. Improving cardiopulmonary resuscitation skills retention: effect of two checklists designed to prompt correct performance. Resuscitation 1997;34:221–5.Google Scholar
168. Greig, M, Elliott, D, Parboteeah, S, et al. Basic life support skill acquisition and retention in student nurses undertaking a pre-registration diploma in higher education/nursing course. Nurse Educ Today 1996;16:28–31.Google Scholar
169. Curry, L, Gass, D. Effects of training in cardiopulmonary resuscitation on competence and patient outcome. CMAJ 1987;137:491–6.Google Scholar
170. Chamberlain, D, Smith, A, Woollard, M, et al. Trials of teaching methods in basic life support (3): comparison of simulated CPR performance after first training and at 6 months, with a note on the value of re-training. Resuscitation 2002;53:179–87.Google Scholar
171. Kaye, W, Rallis, SF, Mancini, ME, et al. The problem of poor retention of cardiopulmonary resuscitation skills may lie with the instructor, not the learner or the curriculum. Resuscitation 1991;21:67–87.Google Scholar
172. Lester, CA, Donnelly, PD, Assar, D. Lay CPR trainees: retraining, confidence and willingness to attempt resuscitation 4 years after training. Resuscitation 2000;45:77–82.Google Scholar
173. Bang, A, Biber, B, Isaksson, L, et al. Evaluation of dispatcher-assisted cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Eur J Emerg Med 1999;6:175–83.Google Scholar
174. Troy, A. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation on television. [author reply 1607]. N Engl J Med 1996;335:1606.Google Scholar
175. Delooz, HH, Corne, L, De Block, G, et al. A television centered public campaign for the propagation of the general training in basic cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Acta Anaesthesiol Belg 1984;35(Suppl):97–101.Google Scholar
176. Gardner, J, Nickolaus, MJ, Steckbeck, R. Health fair & CPR training: a successful community outreach, partnering & marketing opportunity. J Cardiovasc Manag 1999;10:18–27.Google Scholar
177. Capone, PL, Lane, JC, Kerr, CS, et al. Life supporting first aid (LSFA) teaching to Brazilians by television spots. Resuscitation 2000;47:259–65.Google Scholar
178. Meischke, H, Finnegan, J, Eisenberg, M. What can you teach about cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in 30 seconds? Evaluation of a television campaign. Eval Health Prof 1999;22:44–59.Google Scholar
179. Becker, L, Vath, J, Eisenberg, M, et al. The impact of television public service announcements on the rate of bystander CPR. Prehosp Emerg Care 1999;3:353–6.Google Scholar
180. Billittier, AJ, Lerner, EB, Tucker, W, et al. The lay public’s expectations of prearrival instructions when dialing 9-1-1. Pre-hosp Emerg Care 2000;4:234–7.Google Scholar
181. Eisenberg, MS, Hallstrom, AP, Carter, WB, et al. Emergency CPR instruction via telephone. Am J Public Health 1985;75:47–50.Google Scholar
182. Garza, AG, Gratton, MC, Chen, JJ, et al. The accuracy of predicting cardiac arrest by emergency medical services dispatchers: the calling party effect. Acad Emerg Med 2003;10:955–60.Google Scholar
183. Bang, A, Herlitz, J, Martinell, S. Interaction between emergency medical dispatcher and caller in suspected out-of-hospital cardiac arrest calls with focus on agonal breathing. A review of 100 tape recordings of true cardiac arrest cases. Resuscitation 2003;56:25–34.Google Scholar
184. Hauff, SR, Rea, TD, Culley, LL, et al. Factors impeding dispatcher-assisted telephone cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Ann Emerg Med 2003;42:731–7.Google Scholar
185. Hallstrom, AP, Cobb, LA, Johnson, E, et al. Dispatcher assisted CPR: implementation and potential benefit. A 12-year study. Resuscitation 2003;57:123–9.Google Scholar
186. Bang, A, Herlitz, J, Holmberg, S. Possibilities of implementing dispatcher-assisted cardiopulmonary resuscitation in the community. An evaluation of 99 consecutive out-of-hospital cardiac arrests. Resuscitation 2000;44:19–26.Google Scholar
187. Clark, RD, Word, LE. Why don’t bystanders help? Because of ambiguity? J Pers Soc Psychol 1972;24:392–400.Google Scholar
188. Atkinson, PR, Bingham, J, McNicholl, BP, et al. Telemedicine and cardiopulmonary resuscitation: the value of video-link and telephone instruction to a mock bystander. J Telemed Telecare 1999;5:242–5.Google Scholar
189. Carter, WB, Eisenberg, MS, Hallstrom, AP, et al. Development and implementation of emergency CPR instruction via telephone. Ann Emerg Med 1984;13:695–700.Google Scholar
190. Flesche, C, Grundmann, M, Tarnow, J. On-line telephone instruction for emergency cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). Proceedings of the European Society of Anaesthesiologists Annual Congress; 1995 Apr. 29-May 3; CNIT Paris (FR). Paris (FR): European Society of Anaesthesiology; 1995. p. 130.Google Scholar
191. Cooke, MW, Wilson, S. Are 999 callers in a position to give triage information and receive first aid advice? Pre-hosp Immed Care 1998;2:193–6.Google Scholar
192. Meron, G, Frantz, O, Sterz, F, et al. Analysing calls by lay persons reporting cardiac arrest. Resuscitation 1996;32:23–6.Google Scholar
193. Kellermann, AL, Hackman, BB, Somes, G. Dispatcher-assisted cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Validation of efficacy. Circulation 1989;80:1231–9.Google Scholar
194. Heward, A, Donohoe, RT, Whitbread, M. Retrospective study into the delivery of telephone cardiopulmonary resuscitation to “999” callers. Emerg Med J 2004;21:233–4.Google Scholar
195. Dorph, E, Wik, L, Steen, PA. Dispatcher-assisted cardiopulmonary resuscitation. An evaluation of efficacy amongst elderly. Resuscitation 2003;56:265–73.Google Scholar
196. Rea, TD, Eisenberg, MS, Culley, LL, et al. Dispatcher-assisted cardiopulmonary resuscitation and survival in cardiac arrest. Circulation 2001;104:2513–6.Google Scholar
197. Goldberg, RJ, Gore, JM, Love, DG, et al. Layperson CPR – are we training the right people? Ann Emerg Med 1984;13:701–4.Google Scholar
198. Flabouris, A. Ethnicity and proficiency in English as factors affecting community cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) class attendance. Resuscitation 1996;32:95–103.Google Scholar
199. Keim, S, Anderson, K, Siegel, E, et al. Factors associated with CPR certification within an elderly community. Resuscitation 2001;51:269–74.Google Scholar
200. Lejeune, PO, Delooz, HH. Why did persons invited to train in car-diopulmonary resuscitation not do so? Eur Heart J 1987;8:224–8.Google Scholar
201. Demirovic, J. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation programs revisited: results of a community study among older African Americans. Am J Geriatr Cardiol 2004;13:182–7.Google Scholar
202. Dracup, K, Heaney, DM, Taylor, SE, et al. Can family members of high-risk cardiac patients learn cardiopulmonary resuscitation? Arch Intern Med 1989;149:61–4.Google Scholar
203. Sigsbee, M, Geden, EA. Effects of anxiety on family members of patients with cardiac disease learning cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Heart Lung 1990;19:662–5.Google Scholar
204. Dracup, K, Moser, DK, Guzy, PM, et al. Is cardiopulmonary resuscitation training deleterious for family members of cardiac patients? Am J Public Health 1994;84:116–8.Google Scholar
205. Platz, E, Scheatzle, MD, Pepe, PE, et al. Attitudes towards CPR training and performance in family members of patients with heart disease. Resuscitation 2000;47:273–80.Google Scholar
206. Ross, CA, Winter, MK, Mossesso, VN Jr. Bystander CPR in two predominantly African American communities. Top Emerg Med 2000;22:63–8.Google Scholar
207. Ahrendsen, J. Would you help a passenger in need? Trains, boats and planes. Iowa Med 1999;89:16–7.Google Scholar
208. Annas, GJ. CPR: the beat goes on. Hastings Cent Rep 1982;12:24–5.Google Scholar
209. Miller, DF. Emergency care policy. Health Educ 1975;6:13–4.Google Scholar
210. Brenner, B, Stark, B, Kauffman, J. The reluctance of house staff to perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation in the inpatient setting: What are the considerations? Resuscitation 1994;28:185–93.Google Scholar
211. Blumenfield, M, Smith, PJ, Milazzo, J, et al. Survey of attitudes of nurses working with AIDS patients. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1987;9:58–63.Google Scholar
212. Ornato, JP, Hallagan, LF, McMahan, SB, et al. Attitudes of BCLS instructors about mouth-to-mouth resuscitation during the AIDS epidemic. Ann Emerg Med 1990;19:151–6.Google Scholar
213. Brenner, B. Willingness of male homosexuals to perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Resuscitation 1994;27:23–30.Google Scholar
214. Sun, D, Bennett, RB, Archibald, DW. Risk of acquiring AIDS from salivary exchange through cardiopulmonary resuscitation courses and mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Semin Dermatol 1995;14:205–11.Google Scholar
215. Glaser, JB, Nadler, JP. Hepatitis B virus in a cardiopulmonary resuscitation training course. Risk of transmission from a surface antigen-positive participant. Arch Intern Med 1985;145:1653–5.Google Scholar
216. Christian, MD, Loutfy, M, McDonald, LC, et al. Possible SARS coronavirus transmission during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Emerg Infect Dis 2004;10:287–93.Google Scholar
217. Brenner, BE, Van, DC, Cheng, D, et al. Determinants of reluctance to perform CPR among residents and applicants: the impact of experience on helping behavior. Resuscitation 1997;35:203–11.Google Scholar
218. Kliegel, A, Scheinecker, W, Sterz, F, et al. The attitudes of cardiac arrest survivors and their family members towards CPR courses. Resuscitation 2000;47:147–54.Google Scholar
219. Lester, C, Donnelly, P, Weston, C, et al. Teaching schoolchildren cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Resuscitation 1996;31:33–8.Google Scholar
220. Rowe, BH, Shuster, M, Zambon, S, et al. Preparation, attitudes and behaviour in nonhospital cardiac emergencies: evaluating a community’s readiness to act. Can J Cardiol 1998;14:371–7.Google Scholar
221. Shibata, K, Taniguchi, T, Yoshida, M, et al. Obstacles to bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation in Japan. Resuscitation 2000;44:187–93.Google Scholar
222. Locke, CJ, Berg, RA, Sanders, AB, et al. Bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Concerns about mouth-to-mouth contact. Arch Intern Med 1995;155:938–43.Google Scholar
223. Brenner, BE, Kauffman, J. Reluctance of internists and medical nurses to perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Arch Intern Med 1993;153:1763–9.Google Scholar
224. McCormack, AP, Damon, SK, Eisenberg, MS. Disagreeable physical characteristics affecting bystander CPR. Ann Emerg Med 1989;18:283–5.Google Scholar
225. Piliavin, J, Piliavin, I. Effect of blood on reactions to a victim. J Pers Soc Psychol 1972;23:353–61.Google Scholar
226. Axelsson, A, Herlitz, J, Karlsson, T, et al. Factors surrounding cardiopulmonary resuscitation influencing bystanders’ psychological reactions. Resuscitation 1998;37:13–20.Google Scholar
227. Axelsson, A, Herlitz, J, Fridlund, B. How bystanders perceive their cardiopulmonary resuscitation intervention; a qualitative study. Resuscitation 2000;47:71–81.Google Scholar
228. Crider, DA. A study of the attitudes and behaviors of potential rescuers and their willingness to respond in an emergency situation (First Aid, CPR). Dissertation Abstracts International 1508;57:1508.Google Scholar
229. Jelinek, GA, Gennat, H, Celenza, T, et al. Community attitudes towards performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation in Western Australia. Resuscitation 2001;51:239–46.Google Scholar
230. Kazdin, AE, Bryan, JH. Competence and volunteering. J Exp Soc Psychol 1971;7:87–97.Google Scholar
231. Pantin, HM, Carver, CS. Induced competence and the bystander effect. J Appl Soc Psychol 1982;12:100–11.Google Scholar
232. Nolan, RP, Wilson, E, Shuster, M, et al. Readiness to perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation: an emerging strategy against sudden cardiac death. Psychosom Med 1999;61:546–51.Google Scholar
233. Hawks, SR, Peck, SL, Vail-Smith, K. An educational test of health behavior models in relation to emergency helping. Health Psychol 1992;11:396–402.Google Scholar
234. Shotland, R, Heinold, W. Bystander response to arterial bleeding: helping skills, the decision-making process, and differentiating the helping response. J Pers Soc Psychol 1985; (49):347–56.Google Scholar
235. Darley, JM, Latane, B. Bystander intervention in emergencies: diffusion of responsibility. J Pers Soc Psychol 1968;8:377–83.Google Scholar
236. Latane, B, Darley, JM. Group inhibition of bystander intervention in emergencies. J Pers Soc Psychol 1968;10:215–21.Google Scholar
237. Latane, B, Darley, JM. Bystander ‘apathy.’ Am Sci 1969;57:244–68.Google Scholar
238. Schwartz, SH, Clausen, GT. Responsibility, norms and helping in an emergency. J Pers Soc Psychol 1970;16:299–310.Google Scholar
239. Piliavin, IM, Rodin, J. Good samaritanism: an underground phenomenon? J Pers Soc Psychol 1969;13:289–99.Google Scholar
240. Hawks, SR, Peck, SL. Non-traditional teaching methods for emergency care education: student perceptions. J Health Educ 1992;23:39–44.Google Scholar
241. Hawks, SR, Egan, M. The impact of three different first aid curricula on emergency helping among college students. J Health Educ 1998;29(5):289–93.Google Scholar
242. Beaman, A, Barnes, PJ, Klentz, B, et al. Increasing helping rates through information dissemination: teaching pays. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 1978;4:406–11.Google Scholar
243. American Heart Association in collaboration with the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. 2005 International consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and emergency cardiovascular care (ECC) with treatment recommendations. Part 2: adult basic life support. Circulation 2005;112:III-5-III-16.Google Scholar
244. Nagao, K; SOS-KANTO study group. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation by bystanders with chest compression only (SOS-KANTO): an observational study. Lancet 2007;369:920–6.Google Scholar