Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-x4r87 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T13:42:29.850Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Two prospective studies of changes in stress generation across depressive episodes in adolescents and emerging adults

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 November 2014

Matthew C. Morris ,
Chrystyna D. Kouros ,
Natalie Hellman ,
Uma Rao  and
Judy Garber
Matthew C. Morris*
Affiliation:
Meharry Medical College
Chrystyna D. Kouros
Affiliation:
Southern Methodist University
Natalie Hellman
Affiliation:
Meharry Medical College
Uma Rao
Affiliation:
Meharry Medical College Vanderbilt University
Judy Garber
Affiliation:
Vanderbilt University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Matthew C. Morris, Department of Family and Community Medicine, Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Meharry Medical College, 1005 Dr. D. B. Todd Jr. Boulevard, Nashville, TN 37208; E-mail: mmorris@mmc.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The stress generation hypothesis was tested in two different longitudinal studies examining relations between weekly depression symptom ratings and stress levels in adolescents and emerging adults at varied risk for depression. The participants in Study 1 included 240 adolescents who differed with regard to their mothers' history of depressive disorders. Youth were assessed annually across 6 years (Grades 6–12). Consistent with the depression autonomy model, higher numbers of prior major depressive episodes (MDEs) were associated with weaker stress generation effects, such that higher levels of depressive symptoms predicted increases in levels of dependent stressors for adolescents with two or more prior MDEs, but depressive symptoms were not significantly related to dependent stress levels for youth with three or more prior MDEs. In Study 2, the participants were 32 remitted-depressed and 36 never-depressed young adults who completed a psychosocial stress task to determine cortisol reactivity and were reassessed for depression and stress approximately 8 months later. Stress generation effects were moderated by cortisol responses to a laboratory psychosocial stressor, such that individuals with higher cortisol responses exhibited a pattern consistent with the depression autonomy model, whereas individuals with lower cortisol responses showed a pattern more consistent with the depression sensitization model. Finally, comparing across the two samples, stress generation effects were weaker for older participants and for those with more prior MDEs. The complex, multifactorial relation between stress and depression is discussed.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 26 , Special Issue 4pt2: Multilevel Developmental Perspectives Toward Understanding Internalizing Psychopathology: Current Research and Future Directions , November 2014 , pp. 1385 - 1400
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96, 358–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adam, E. K., Sutton, J. M., Doane, L. D., & Mineka, S. (2008). Incorporating hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis measures into preventive interventions for adolescent depression: Are we there yet? Development and Psychopathology, 20, 975–1001.Google Scholar
Adrian, C., & Hammen, C. (1993). Stress exposure and stress generation in children of depressed mothers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 354–359.Google Scholar
Ahrens, T., Deuschle, M., Krumm, B., van der Pompe, G., den Boer, J. A., & Lederbogen, F. (2008). Pituitary–adrenal and sympathetic nervous system responses to stress in women remitted from recurrent major depression. Psychosomatic Medicine, 70, 461–467.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Allen, A. P., Kennedy, P. J., Cryan, J. F., Dinan, T. G., & Clarke, G. (2014). Biological and psychological markers of stress in humans: Focus on the Trier Social Stress Test. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 38, 94–124.Google Scholar
Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469–480.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Badanes, L. S., Watamura, S. E., & Hankin, B. L. (2011). Hypocortisolism as a potential marker of allostatic load in children: Associations with family risk and internalizing disorders. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 881–896.Google Scholar
Bagley, S. L., Weaver, T. L., & Buchanan, T. W. (2011). Sex differences in physiological and affective responses to stress in remitted depression. Physiology & Behavior, 104, 180–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beardslee, W. R., Gladstone, T. R. G., & O'Connor, E. E. (2012). Developmental risk of depression: Experience matters. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 21, 261–278.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Billings, A. G., & Moos, R. H. (1983). Comparisons of children of depressed and nondepressed parents: A social–environmental perspective. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 11, 463–485.Google Scholar
Bouchard, L. C., & Shih, J. H. (2013). Gender differences in stress generation: Examination of interpersonal predictors. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 32, 424–445.Google Scholar
Brown, G. W., & Harris, T. O. (1978). Social origins of depression: A study of psychiatric disorder in women. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Brown, G. W., & Harris, T. O. (Eds.). (1989). Life events and illness. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Brown, L. L. (2001). The cortisol response to psychosocial stress in women at risk for depression (Doctoral dissertation, Vanderbilt University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 61, 6125B.Google Scholar
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models. Applications and data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Burke, H. M., Davis, S. C., Otte, C., & Mohr, D. C. (2005). Depression and psychological response to stress: A meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30, 846–856.Google Scholar
Carter, J. S., Garber, J., Ciesla, J. A., & Cole, D. A. (2006). Modeling relations between hassles and internalizing and externalizing symptoms in adolescents: A four-year prospective study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 428–442.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W., Harrington, H., et al. (2003). Influence of life stress on depression: Moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science, 301, 386–389.Google Scholar
Chopra, K. K., Segal, Z. V., Buis, T., Kennedy, S. H., & Levitan, R. D. (2008). Investigating associations between cortisol and cognitive reactivity to sad mood provocation and the prediction of relapse in remitted major depression. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 1, 33–36.Google Scholar
Chun, C. A., Cronkite, R. C., & Moos, R. H. (2004). Stress generation in depressed patients and community controls. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 390–412.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2009). The past achievements and future promises of developmental psychopathology: The coming of age of a discipline. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 16–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2001). Diverse patterns of neuroendocrine activity in maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 677–693.Google Scholar
Cole, D. A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Girgus, J., & Paul, G. (2006). Stress exposure and stress generation in child and adolescent depression: A latent trait-state-error approach to longitudinal analyses. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 40–51.Google Scholar
Compas, B. E., Connor-Smith, J. K., Saltzman, H., Thomsen, A. H., & Wadsworth, M. E. (2001). Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence: Problems, progress, and potential in theory and research. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 87–127.Google Scholar
Compas, B. E., Davis, G. E., Forsythe, C. J., & Wagner, B. M. (1987). Assessment of major and daily stressful events during adolescence: The adolescent perceived events scale. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 534–541.Google Scholar
Cui, X. J., & Vaillant, G. E. (1997). Does depression generate negative life events? Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 185, 145–150.Google Scholar
Daley, S. E., Hammen, C., Burge, D., Davila, J., Paley, B., Lindberg, N., et al. (1997). Predictors of the generation of episodic stress: A longitudinal study of late adolescent women. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 251–259.Google Scholar
Davila, J., Bradbury, T. N., Cohan, C. L., & Tochluk, S. (1997). Marital functioning and depressive symptoms: Evidence for a stress generation model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 849–861.Google Scholar
Davila, J., Hammen, C., Burge, D., Paley, B., & Daley, S. E. (1995). Poor interpersonal problem-solving as a mechanism of stress generation in depression among adolescent women. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 592–600.Google Scholar
de Kloet, R E., Oitzl, M. S., & Joels, M. (1999). Stress and cognition: Are corticosteroids good or bad guys? Trends in Neurosciences, 22, 422–426.Google Scholar
Dickerson, S. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004). Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 355–391.Google Scholar
First, M. B., Spitzer, R. I., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. B. (1996). User's guide for the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders. New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Research Department.Google Scholar
Garber, J., Keiley, M. K., & Martin, N. C. (2002). Developmental trajectories of adolescents' depressive symptoms: Predictors of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 79–95.Google Scholar
Ge, X. J., Lorenz, F. O., Conger, R. D., Elder, G. H., & Simons, R. L. (1994). Trajectories of stressful life events and depressive symptoms during adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 30, 467–483.Google Scholar
Goodman, S. H. (2007). Depression in mothers. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3, 107–135.Google Scholar
Goodman, S. H., & Gotlib, I. H. (1999). Risk for psychopathology in the children of depressed mothers: A developmental model for understanding mechanisms of transmission. Psychological Review, 106, 458–490.Google Scholar
Goodyer, I. M., Park, R. J., & Herbert, J. (2001). Psychosocial and endocrine features of chronic first-episode major depression in 8-16 year olds. Biological Psychiatry, 50, 351–357.Google Scholar
Gotlib, I. H., & Joorman, J. (2010). Cognition and depression: Current status and future directions. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 6, 285–312.Google Scholar
Grant, K. E., Compas, B. E., Thurm, A. E., McMarhon, S. D., & Gipson, P. Y. (2004). Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: Measurement issues and prospective effects. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 23, 412–425.Google Scholar
Gruenewald, T. L., Kemeny, M. E., Aziz, N., & Fahey, J. L. (2004). Acute threat to the social self: Shame, social self-esteem, and cortisol activity. Psychosomatic Medicine, 66, 915–924.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammar, Å, & Årdal, G. (2009). Cognitive functioning in major depression: A summary. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 3, 1–7.Google Scholar
Hammen, C. (1991). Generation of stress in the course of unipolar depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 45–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammen, C. (2006). Stress generation in depression: Reflections on origins, research, and future directions. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 1065–1082.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammen, C. (2009). Adolescent depression: Stressful interpersonal contexts and risk for recurrence. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 200–204.Google Scholar
Hammen, C., Adrian, C., Gordon, D., Burge, D., Jaenicke, C., & Hiroto, D. (1987). Children of depressed mothers: Maternal strain and symptom predictors of dysfunction. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 190–198.Google Scholar
Hammen, C., & Brennan, P. A. (2001). Depressed adolescents of depressed and nondepressed mothers: Tests of an interpersonal impairment hypothesis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 284–294.Google Scholar
Hammen, C., & Brennan, P. A. (2002). Interpersonal dysfunction in depressed women: Impairments independent of depressive symptoms. Journal of Affective Disorders, 72, 145–156.Google Scholar
Hammen, C., Brennan, P. A., & Le Brocque, R. (2011). Youth depression and early childrearing: Stress generation and intergenerational transmission of depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79, 353–363.Google Scholar
Hammen, C., Davila, J., Brown, G., Ellicott, A., & Gitlin, M. (1992). Psychiatric history and stress: Predictors of severity of unipolar depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 45–52.Google Scholar
Hammen, C., Mayol, A., DeMayo, R., & Marks, T. (1986). Initial symptom levels and the life-event–depression relationship. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 114–122.Google Scholar
Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A., McGee, R., & Angell, K. E. (1998). Development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood: Emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 128–140.Google Scholar
Hankin, B. L., Kassel, J. D., & Abela, J. R. Z. (2005). Adult attachment dimensions and specificity of emotional distress symptoms: Prospective investigations of cognitive risk and interpersonal stress generation as mediating mechanisms. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 136–151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hankin, B. L., Mermelstein, R., & Roesch, L. (2007). Sex differences in adolescent depression: Stress exposure and reactivity models. Child Development, 78, 279–295.Google Scholar
Hankin, B. L., Stone, L., & Wright, P. A. (2010). Corumination, interpersonal stress generation, and internalizing symptoms: Accumulating effects and transactional influences in a multiwave study of adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 217–235.Google Scholar
Harkness, K. L., Lumley, M. N., & Truss, A. E. (2008). Stress generation in adolescent depression: The moderating role of child abuse and neglect. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 421–432.Google Scholar
Harkness, K. L., & Luther, J. (2001). Clinical risk factors for the generation of life events in major depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 564–572.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harkness, K. L., Monroe, S. M., Simons, A. D., & Thase, M. (1999). The generation of life events in recurrent and non-recurrent depression. Psychological Medicine, 29, 135–144.Google Scholar
Harkness, K. L., & Stewart, J. G. (2009). Symptom specificity and the prospective generation of life events in adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 278–287.Google Scholar
Hoffman, L., & Stawski, R. S. (2009). Persons as contexts: Evaluating between-person and within-person effects in longitudinal analysis. Research in Human Development, 6, 97–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hollingshead, A. B. (1975). Four Factor Index of Social Status. Unpublished manuscript, Yale University, New Haven, CT.Google Scholar
Holsboer, F. (2000). The corticosteroid receptor hypothesis of depression. Neuropsychopharmacology, 23, 477–501.Google Scholar
Jacobson, N. S., Martell, C. R., & Dimidjian, S. (2001). Behavioral activation treatment for depression: Returning to contextual roots. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 8, 255–270.Google Scholar
Johnson, D. P., Whisman, M. A., Corley, R. P., Hewitt, J. K., & Rhee, S. H. (2012). Association between depressive symptoms and negative dependent life events from late childhood to adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 1385–1400.Google Scholar
Joiner, T. E., Wingate, L. R., Gencoz, T., & Gencoz, F. (2005). Stress generation in depression: Three studies on its resilience, possible mechanism, and symptom specificity. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24, 236–253.Google Scholar
Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Brent, D., Rao, U., Flynn, C., Moreci, P., et al. (1997). Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children—Present and lifetime version (K-SADS-PL): Initial reliability and validity data. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 980–988.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keller, M. B., Lavori, P. W., Friedman, B., Nielsen, E., Endicott, J., McDonald-Scott, P., et al. (1987). The longitudinal interval follow-up evaluation. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 540–548.Google Scholar
Keller, M. B., Lavori, P. W., Mueller, T. I., Endicott, J., Coryell, W., Hirschfeld, R. M. A., et al. (1992). Time to recovery, chronicity, and levels of psychopathology in major depression: A 5-year prospective follow-up of 431 subjects. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 809–816.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Karkowski, L. M., & Prescott, C. A. (1999). Causal relationship between stressful life events and the onset of major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 837–841.Google Scholar
Kercher, A. J., Rapee, R. M., & Schniering, C. A. (2009). Neuroticism, life events and negative thoughts in the development of depression in adolescent girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 903–915.Google Scholar
Kessler, R., & Magee, W. J. (1993). Childhood adversities and adult depression: Basic patterns of association in a United States national survey. Psychological Medicine, 23, 679–690.Google Scholar
Kim, K. J., Conger, R. D., Elder, G. H., & Lorenz, F. O. (2003). Reciprocal influences between stressful life events and adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. Child Development, 74, 127–143.Google Scholar
Kirschbaum, C., Pirke, K. M., & Hellhammer, D. H. (1993).The Trier Social Stress Test: A tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting. Neuropsychology. 28, 76–81.Google Scholar
Lange, C., Zschucke, E., Ising, M., Uhr, M., Bermpohl, F., & Adli, M. (2013). Evidence for a normal HPA axis response to psychosocial stress in patients remitted from depression. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 38, 2729–2736.Google Scholar
Langrock, A. M., Compas, B. E., Keller, G., Merchant, M. J., & Copeland, M. E. (2002). Coping with the stress of parental depression: Parents' reports of children's coping, emotional, and behavioral problems. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 31, 312–324.Google Scholar
Lopez-Duran, N. L., Kovacs, M., & George, C. J. (2009). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysregulation in depressed children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 1272–1283.Google Scholar
Maciejewski, P. K., Prigerson, H. G., & Mazure, C. M. (2000). Self-efficacy as a mediator between stressful life events and depressive symptoms: Differences based on history of prior depression. British Journal of Psychiatry, 176, 373–378.Google Scholar
McEwen, B. S. (1998). Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. New England Journal of Medicine, 338, 171–179.Google Scholar
Monroe, S. M., & Harkness, K. L. (2005). Life stress, the “kindling” hypothesis, and the recurrence of depression: Considerations from a life stress perspective. Psychological Review, 112, 417–445.Google Scholar
Monroe, S. M., & Harkness, K. L. (2011). Recurrence in major depression: A conceptual analysis. Psychological Review, 118, 655.Google Scholar
Morris, M. C., Ciesla, J. A., & Garber, J. (2010). A prospective study of stress autonomy versus stress sensitization in adolescents at varied risk for depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 341–354.Google Scholar
Morris, M. C., & Rao, U. (2014). Cortisol response to psychosocial stress during a depressive episode and remission. Stress, 17, 51–58.Google Scholar
Morris, M. C., Rao, U., & Garber, J. (2012). Cortisol responses to psychosocial stress predict depression trajectories: Social-evaluative threat and prior depressive episodes as moderators. Journal of Affective Disorders, 143, 223–230.Google Scholar
Morris, M. C., Rao, U., Wang, L., & Garber, J. (2014). Cortisol reactivity to experimentally manipulated psychosocial stress in young adults at varied risk for depression. Depression and Anxiety, 31, 44–52.Google Scholar
Oitzl, M. S., Champagne, D. L., van der Veen, R., & de Kloet, E. R. (2010). Brain development under stress: Hypotheses of glucocorticoid actions revisited. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 34, 853–866.Google Scholar
Patton, G. C., Coffey, C., Posterino, M., Carlin, J. B., & Bowes, G. (2003). Life events and early onset depression: Cause or consequence? Psychological Medicine, 33, 1203–1210.Google Scholar
Pettit, J. W., Lewinsohn, P. M., Seeley, J. R., Roberts, R. E., & Yaroslavsky, I. (2010). Developmental relations between depressive symptoms, minor hassles, and major events from adolescence through age 30 years. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 811–824.Google Scholar
Potthoff, J. G., Holahan, C. J., & Joiner, T. E. (1995). Reassurance seeking, stress generation, and depressive symptoms: An integrative model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 664–670.Google Scholar
Pruessner, J. C., Kirschbaum, C., Meinlschmid, G., & Hellhammer, D. H. (2003). Two formulas for computation of the area under the curve represent measures of total hormone concentration versus time-dependent change. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 28, 916–931.Google Scholar
Raison, C. L., & Miller, A. H. (2003). When not enough is too much: The role of insufficient glucocorticoid signaling in the pathophysiology of stress-related disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1554–1565.Google Scholar
Rao, U., Hammen, C., Ortiz, L. R., Chen, L. A., & Poland, R. E. (2008). Effects of early and recent adverse experiences on adrenal response to psychosocial stress in depressed adolescents. Biological Psychiatry, 64, 521–526.Google Scholar
Raudenbush, S. W., Bryk, A. S., & Congdon, R. (2004). HLM 6 for Windows [Computer software]. Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software International, Inc.Google Scholar
Ribeiro, S., Tandon, R., Grunhaus, L., & Greden, J. (1993). The DST as a predictor of outcome in depression: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1618–1629.Google Scholar
Rudolph, K. D., Flynn, M., Abaied, J. L., Groot, A., & Thompson, R. (2009). Why is past depression the best predictor of future depression? Stress generation as a mechanism of depression continuity in girls. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 38, 473–485.Google Scholar
Rudolph, K. D., & Hammen, C. (1999). Age and gender as determinants of stress exposure, generation, and reactions in youngsters: A transactional perspective. Child Development, 70, 660–677.Google Scholar
Rudolph, K. D., Hammen, C., Burge, D., Lindberg, N., Herzberg, D., & Daley, S. E. (2000). Toward an interpersonal life-stress model of depression: The developmental context of stress generation. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 215–234.Google Scholar
Safford, S. M., Alloy, L. B., Abramson, L. Y., & Crossfield, A. G. (2007). Negative cognitive style as a predictor of negative life events in depression-prone individuals: A test of the stress generation hypothesis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 99, 147–154.Google Scholar
Sandberg, S., McGuinness, D., Hillary, C., & Rutter, M. (1998). Independence of childhood life events and chronic adversities: A comparison of two patient groups and controls. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 728–735.Google Scholar
Sawyer, M. G., Arney, F. M., Baghurst, P. A., Clark, J. J., Graetz, B. W., Kosky, R. J., et al. (2000). The mental health of young people in Australia. Canberra, Australia: Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care, Mental Health and Special Programs Branch.Google Scholar
Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M., Teasdale, J. D., & Gemar, M. (1996). A cognitive science perspective on kindling and episode sensitization in recurrent affective disorder. Psychological Medicine, 26, 371–380.Google Scholar
Shiffman, S., Stone, A. A., & Hufford, M. R. (2008). Ecological momentary assessment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 1–32.Google Scholar
Shih, J. H. (2006). Sex differences in stress generation: An examination of sociotropy/autonomy, stress, and depressive symptoms. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 434–446.Google Scholar
Shih, J. H., Abela, J. R. Z., & Starrs, C. (2009). Cognitive and interpersonal predictors of stress generation in children of affectively ill parents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 195–208.Google Scholar
Singer, J. D., & Willett, J. B. (2003). Applied longitudinal data analysis: Modeling change and event occurrence. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Solomon, D. A., Keller, M. B., Leon, A. C., Mueller, T. I., Lavori, P. W., Shea, M. T., et al. (2000). Multiple recurrences of major depressive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 229–233.Google Scholar
Sorenson, S. B., Rutter, C. M., & Aneshensel, C. S. (1991). Depression in the community: An investigation into age of onset. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 541–546.Google Scholar
Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B. W., Gibbon, M., & First, M. B. (1990). User's guide for the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar
Trestman, R. L., Coccaro, E. F., Bernstein, D., Lawrence, T., Gabriel, S. M., Horvath, T. B., et al. (1991). Cortisol responses to mental arithmetic in acute and remitted depression. Biological Psychiatry, 29, 1051–1054.Google Scholar
Vreeburg, S. A., Hoogendijk, W. J. G., van Pelt, J., DeRink, R. H., Verhagen, J. C. M., van Dyck, R., et al. (2009). Major depressive disorder and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis activity: Results from a large cohort study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66, 617–626.Google Scholar
Vrshek-Schallhorn, S., Doane, L. D.,Mineka, S., Zinbarg, R. E., Craske, M. G., & Adam, E. K. (2013). The cortisol awakening response predicts major depression: Predictive stability over a 4-year follow-up and effect of depression history. Psychological Medicine, 43, 483–493.Google Scholar