¹ I recognise the objection that the very use of the term ‘America’ to mean ‘the United States’ is itself a marker of ‘exceptionalism’. I do not mean to marginalise the other countries in the Americas, merely to use the common terminology deployed in the disciplines discussed.

² Terrence McCoy, ‘How Joseph Stalin Invented “American Exceptionalism”’, The Atlantic, 15 (March 2012), available at: {http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2012/03/how-joseph-stalin-invented-americanexceptionalism/254534/} accessed 8 June 2014.

³ Obama claimed, ‘America is not the world's policeman. Terrible things happen across the globe, and it is beyond our means to right every wrong. But when, with modest effort and risk, we can stop children from being gassed to death, and thereby make our own children safer over the long run, I believe we should act. That's what makes America different. That's what makes us exceptional.’ Putin replied, ‘It is extremely dangerous to encourage people to see themselves as exceptional, whatever the motivation. There are big countries and small countries, rich and poor, those with long democratic traditions and those still finding their way to democracy. Their policies differ, too. We are all different, but when we ask for the Lord's blessings, we must not forget that God created us equal.’ Barack Obama, ‘Remarks by the President in Address to the Nation on Syria’, 10 September 2013. White House Office of the Press Secretary, available at: {http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/09/10/remarks-president-address-nation-syria} accessed 19 October 2013; Vladimir Putin, ‘A Plea for Caution from Russia’, New York Times (11 September 2013), p. A31.

⁴ Bobbitt, Philip, The Shield of Achilles: War, Peace, and the Course of History (London: Penguin, 2002), p. 691 Google Scholar.

⁵ For example, the Bush administration refused to ratify the Kyoto Protocol and the Ottowa Land Mine Convention and it withdrew from the 1972 Antiballistic Missile Treaty and the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC).

⁶ Kagan, Robert and Kristol, William, Present Dangers: Crisis and Oportunity in American Foreign and Defense Policy (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2000), p. 22 Google Scholar; Fukuyama, Francis, America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006), p. 101 Google Scholar.

⁷ See Foot, Rosemary, ‘Exceptionalism Again: The Bush Administration, the “Global War on Terror” and Human Rights’, Law and History Review, 26:3 (2008), pp. 707–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸ Ignatieff, Michael, ‘Introduction: American Exceptionalism and Human Rights’, in Ignatieff, Michael (ed.), American Exceptionalism and Human Rights (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), pp. 1–26 Google Scholar.

⁹ Examples of these strands of US exceptionalism include, respectively: President Clinton's attempt to exempt US citizens from the jurisdiction of the ICC in 1998; ratifying the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1991 but not its provisions banning the infliction of the death penalty on juveniles; and waiting nearly four decades to ratify the Genocide Convention (1948) and the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (1950).

¹⁰ See John Ruggie, ‘American Exceptionalism, Exemptionalism, and Global Governance’, in Ignatieff (ed.), American Exceptionalism, pp. 304–38, in particular pp. 318–21.

¹¹ See, for example, Andrew Moravcsik, ‘The Paradox of U.S. Human Rights Policy’, in Ignatieff (ed.), American Exceptionalism and Human Rights, pp. 147–97; and Cass Sunstein, ‘Why does the American Constitution Lack Social and Economic Guarantees’, in Ignatieff (ed.), American Exceptionalism and Human Rights, pp. 90–110.

¹² According to Google Trends, the spike in interest in ‘American exceptionalism’ during 2008 has only once been exceeded (in September 2013). Republican Senator Marco Rubio made ‘exceptionalism’ the central theme of his 2010 Senate campaign in Florida. Sarah Palin has frequently evoked the term in her social media communications and in her book America by Heart (2010), which contains a chapter titled ‘America the Exceptional’. Newt Gingrich launched his 2012 presidential campaign with the release of a book titled A Nation Like No Other: Why American Exceptionalism Matters (2011). Mitt Romney's campaign book, No Apology: The Case For American Greatness (2010), charges: ‘This reorientation away from a celebration of American exceptionalism [under Obama] is misguided and bankrupt.’

¹³ Jeffrey M. Jones, ‘Americans See U.S. as Exceptional; 37% Doubt Obama Does’, Gallop Poll Report (22 December 2010), available at: {http://www.gallup.com/poll/145358/americans-exceptional-doubt-obama.aspx} accessed 19 October 2013.

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¹⁶ Jones, ‘Americans See U.S. as Exceptional’; Barack Obama, ‘State of the Union Address’, 25 January 2011. White House Office of the Press Secretary, available at: {http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/01/25/remarks-president-state-union-address} accessed 19 October 2013.

¹⁷ An epithet derived from ‘the world's indispensable nation’, coined by President Clinton in his second inaugural address in 1997.

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²⁰ Article 2.7 provides, ‘nothing should authorise intervention in matters essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state’.

²¹ Ruth Blakeley and Sam Raphael, The Rendition Project, available at: {http://www.therenditionproject.org.uk/project/index.html} accessed 28 June 2014.

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⁵¹ Rogers Smith, ‘“Our Republican Example”: The Significance of the American Experiments in Government in the 21st Century’, paper given at APSA 2011 Annual Meeting, 2011, p. 2, available at: {http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1902712} accessed 19 October 2013.

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⁵⁹ Madsen, American Exceptionalism, p. 1.

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⁶¹ Madsen, American Exceptionalism, pp. 1–2.

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⁶³ Miller, Errand into the Wilderness, pp. 3–4.

⁶⁴ Ibid., p. 12.

⁶⁵ Pfaff, ‘Manifest Destiny’.

⁶⁶ Ibid.

⁶⁷ Miller, Errand into the Wilderness, p. 10.

⁶⁸ Greene, Jack, Pursuits of Happiness: The Social Development of Early Modern British Colonies and the Formation of American Culture (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), p. 175 Google Scholar.

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⁷⁰ Ibid.

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⁹⁰ Ibid., p. 3

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¹⁰² Ibid., p. 68.

¹⁰³ Ibid.

¹⁰⁴ Ceaser, ‘The Origins and Character of American Exceptionalism’, p. 6.

¹⁰⁵ Lerner, Max, America as a Civilization: Life and Thought in the United States Today (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1957), p. 28 Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁶ Ibid., p. 65.

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¹¹¹ Smith, ‘Beyond Tocqueville, Myrdal, and Hartz’, p. 549.

¹¹² Lipset, American Exceptionalism, p. 7.

¹¹³ Pease, The New American Exceptionalism, p. 10.

¹¹⁴ Lipset, Seymour, ‘Why no Socialism in the United States?’, in Bialer, Seweryn and Sluzar, Sophia (eds), Sources of Contemporary Radicalism (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1977), pp. 31–149 Google Scholar; Foner, Eric, ‘Why Is There No Socialism in the United States?’, History Workshop Journal, 17:1 (1984), pp. 57–80 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wilentz, Sean, ‘Against Exceptionalism: Class Consciousness and the American Labor Movement, 1790–1920’, International Labor and Working Class History, 26 (1984), pp. 1–24 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Howe, Irving, Socialism and America (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1985)Google Scholar.

¹¹⁵ Pease, The New American Exceptionalism, p. 10.

¹¹⁶ Cited in Hessen, Robert (ed.), Breaking with Communism: The Intellectual Odyssey of Bertram D. Wolfe (Stanford: Hoover Press, 1990), p. 8 Google Scholar.

¹¹⁷ See fn. 16 above.

¹¹⁸ Ronald Reagan, ‘We will be a City upon a Hill’, address to the First Conservative Political Action Conference, 25 January 1974, available at: {http://reagan2020.us/speeches/City_Upon_A_Hill.asp} accessed 19 October 2013.

¹¹⁹ An examination of Pius XII's speeches and radio messages between 1944 and 1949 does not reveal that quotation {http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xii/speeches/index.htm}. The closest I can find is the ‘Address of His Holiness Pius XII to a Group of American Senators’ on 23 January 1946, which contains the following passage: ‘it is a pleasure to greet and say a word of encouragement to those who today carry a heavy weight of responsibility to a world, encircled by gloom and darkness, that is groping for the first steady rays of peace’. But Pius here was referring, not exclusively to the United States, but generically to ‘the leaders of State and to them whose exalted duty it is to formulate the laws that will govern and guide the peoples of tomorrow’. Far from God having placed human destiny into American hands, what the pontiff actually said was: ‘God is only too ready, eager to give peace and concord to His world; but men must be humble enough to accept it from His hands, approaching Him along the path of Truth and justice and Charity.’

¹²⁰ Myrdal, An American Dilemma, pp. lxxix, 1xxviii, emphasis in the original.

¹²¹ In six of the key monographs mentioned in fn. 58, the phrase ‘city upon a hill’ appears only ten times. Tuveson does not use it at all, while the single usages in Cherry and Bercovitch refer to developments in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, not to Winthrop.

¹²² Addressing the Massachusetts legislature in 1961, Kennedy proclaimed: ‘Today the eyes of all people are truly upon us – and our governments, in every branch, at every level, national, state and local, must be as a city upon a hill – constructed and inhabited by men aware of their great trust and their great responsibilities.’

¹²³ Reagan's first usage of the phrase ‘shining city upon a hill’, to my knowledge, came in a speech to his campaign team the day after losing out on the GOP presidential nomination to Gerald Ford in 1976. He used it again when challenging Jimmy Carter for the presidency in 1979, and famously referred to America as a ‘shining city’ in his farewell address of 1989. The word ‘shining’ has Gospel connotations (‘the light of the world’) as well as patriotic connotations on account of the line ‘From sea to shining sea!’ in the 1910 song ‘America the Beautiful’ (whose lyrics were first published as poem by Katharine Lee Bates in 1895).

¹²⁴ Gamble, Richard, In Search of the City upon a Hill: The Making and Unmaking of an American Myth (New York: Continuum, 2012)Google Scholar.

¹²⁵ When Reagan first invoked the ‘city upon a hill’ metaphor in 1969, he included Winthrop's cautionary prophecy; but the humbling and self-restraining connotations had gone missing by the time the ‘shining city’ trope was coined in 1976.

¹²⁶ Reagan, ‘We will be a City upon a Hill’.

¹²⁷ Ronald Reagan, ‘Second Inaugural Address’, 21 January 1985, available at: {http://reagan2020.us/speeches/Second_Inaugural.asp} accessed 19 March 2013.

¹²⁸ ‘The terms Pilgrims and Pilgrim Fathers, as used in American history, were unknown until the closing years of the eighteenth century [1798 and 1799].’ The ‘true first “Pilgrims” in America’ were not British Puritans at all but French huguenots in 1564; and rather than symbolising irenic origins these first colonizers were massacred by Spaniard Catholics in an act of religious persecution. See Matthews, Albert, ‘The Term Pilgrim Fathers and Early Celebrations of Forefathers’ Day’, Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts (Cambridge, MA: John Wilson and Son, 1915), p. 383 Google Scholar; and Davis, Kenneth C., America's Hidden History: Untold Tales of the First Pilgrims, Fighting Women, and Forgotten Founders Who Shaped a Nation (New York: HarperCollins, 2009), p. 8 .

¹²⁹ Vaver, Anthony, Bound with an Iron Chain (Westborough, MA: Pickpocket, 2011), p. 7 Google Scholar.

¹³⁰ Tomes, ‘American Exceptionalism in the Twenty-First Century’, p. 28.

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¹⁴⁰ Stout, Harry, Upon the Altar of the Nation: A Moral History of the Civil War (New York: Penguin, 2007)Google Scholar.

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¹⁴³ In 1954, the words ‘under God’ from Lincoln's Gettysburg address were officially incorporated into the Pledge of Allegiance to create the new phrase ‘one nation under God’ and the motto ‘In God We Trust’ was made a legal requirement on all currency (the motto had first appeared on coinage under Lincoln and coins had universally borne the motto since 1938). In 1956, ‘In God We Trust’ was formally ratified as the United States’ national motto in place of ‘E pluribus unum’.

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