¹ For Drewry reports, www.drewry.co.uk. For Tung's biography, www.islandnavigation.org/cyTung.asp.

² Boyce, Gordon, The Growth and Dissolution of a Large-Scale Business Enterprise: The Furness Interest, 1892–1919 (St. John's, 2012), 10–11CrossRefGoogle Scholar; See also Harlaftis, Gelina and Theotokas, Ioannis, “European Family Firms in International Business: British and Greek Tramp-Shipping Firms,” Business History 46 (Apr. 2004): 219–55Google Scholar. There is a large bibliography on the big British shipping companies. For a recent overview see Boyce, The Growth and Dissolution of a Large-Scale Business Enterprise, 12.

³ Boyce, Gordon, Information, Mediation and Institutional Development: The Rise of Large-Scale Enterprise in British Shipping, 1870–1919 (Manchester, U.K., 1995)Google Scholar, 128.

⁴ Lamar, Cecil, Albert Ballin: Business and Politics in Imperial Germany, 1888–1918 (Princeton, 1967)Google Scholar; Broeze, Frank, “Shipping Policy and Social-Darwinism: Albert Ballin and the Weltpolitik of the Hamburg-America Line, 1886–1914,” Mariner's Mirror 79, no. 4 (1993): 419–36Google Scholar. Broeze, Frank, The Globalisation of the Oceans: Containerization from the 1950s to the Present (St. John's, 2002)Google Scholar.

⁵ Sturmey, Stanley's classic book, British Shipping and World Competition (London, 1962)Google Scholar, contains remarkable insight in pointing out the main changes in world shipping.

⁶ Harlaftis, Gelina, A History of Greek-Owned Shipping: The Making of an International Tramp Fleet, 1830 to the Present Day (London, 1996), 246–51Google Scholar.

⁷ Miller, Michael, Europe and the Maritime World: A Twentieth-Century History (Cambridge, U.K., 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 161, 95.

⁸ Ibid., 377.

⁹ Ibid., 309.

¹⁰ A team of journalists from the London Sunday Times wrote the most reliable account of Onassis's activities. Fraser, Nicholas et al. , Aristotle Onassis (New York, 1977)Google Scholar. Of doubtful quality are the oft-quoted books on Onassis by Evans, Peter, principally Ari: The Life and Times of Aristotle Onassis (London, 1986)Google Scholar. For a detailed account of popular bibliography on Onassis, see Gelina Harlaftis, “Mr. Onassis and Game Theory,” paper presented at the European Business History Association annual meeting, Athens, Aug. 2011: http://ebha.eap.gr/files/Papers/Onassis%20and%20Game%20Theory_Harlaftis.pdf.

¹¹ Harlaftis, Gelina, Greek Shipowners and Greece, 1945–1975: From Separate Development to Mutual Interdependence (London, 1993)Google Scholar; Harlaftis, Α Ηistory of Greek-Owned Shipping; Harlaftis, Gelina, Beneki, Helen, and Haritatos, Manos, Ploto: Greek Shipowners from the Late Eighteenth Century to the Eve of World War II (Athens, 2003) (in Greek and English)Google Scholar; Theotokas, Ioannis and Harlaftis, Gelina, Leadership in World Shipping: Greek Family Firms in International Business (London, 2009)Google Scholar; Geoffrey Jones and Paul Gomopoulos, “Aristotle Onassis and the Greek Shipping Industry,” Harvard Business School Case No. 9-805-141, rev. 18 Oct. 2008.

¹² FBI archives consist of two main files of about 1,000 pages: Archives of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), “Aristotle Onassis,” part 1, Bufile 100-125834 and parts 2, 3, and 4, Bufile 46-17783. On Congressional Committees, see note 74 below.

¹³ Harlaftis, Greek Shipowners and Greece.

¹⁴ Maria Damilakou and Gelina Harlaftis, “The Beginning of an ‘Empire’: Aristotle Onassis between Argentina and Europe, 1924–1940,” paper presented at the European Business History Association annual meeting, Paris, 30 Aug.–1 Sept. 2012.

¹⁵ Ibid.

¹⁶ Damilakou, Maria, “Μικρασιάτες πρόσφυγες στην Αργεντινή: μεταναστευτικές διαδρομές και στοιχεία ταυτότητας” [Refugees from Asia Minor to Argentina: Immigration Routes and Identity Clues], Istorika 42 (July 2005): 177–202Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Between 1922 and 1929 tobacco production and exports from Greece tripled. See Petmezas, Socrates, Προλεγόμενα στην ιστορία της ελληνικής αγροτικής οικονομίας του Μεσοπολέμου [Prolegomena in the History of Greek Agricultural Economy] (Athens, 2012)Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Mantidis, Yannis, Όταν ο Ωνάσης συγγένευε με το Πήλιο: Οι δυο ζωές της άγνωστης ανηψιάς του [When Onassis Was Related to Pelion: The Two Lives of His Unknown Niece] (Thessaloniki, 2009), 171–72Google Scholar, 177–78, 183–84.

¹⁹ See Damilakou and Harlaftis, “The Beginning of an ‘Empire.’”

²⁰ Aristotle Onassis, “Η ναυτιλία μας μετά τον πόλεμον και η δράσις των Ελλήνων εφοπλιστών” [Our Postwar Shipping after the War and the Activities of the Greek Shipowners], Memorandum to the president of the Greek shipowners in New York, M. Kulukundis, in 1947, published in Ethnikos Kyrex [National Herald], 15 Mar. 1953. The memorandum was published in eleven parts between March 8 and 25, 1953. It has been republished with an introduction in Harlaftis, Gelina, “‘Το κατηγορώ’ του Αριστοτέλη Ωνάση προς τους εφοπλιστές και την ελληνική κυβέρνηση το 1947” [The “J'accuse” of Aristotle Onassis to the Shipowners and the Greek Government in 1947], Ionios Logos 4 (2013): 325–400Google Scholar.

²¹ Damilakou and Harlaftis, “The Beginning of an ‘Empire.’”

²² Carter, Martin, “Entrepreneurship and Marketing,” in The Oxford Handbook of Entrepreneurship, ed. Casson, Mark et al. (Oxford, 2006), 115–37Google Scholar.

²³ Effective social networking in order to collect and disseminate information and use it accordingly is also a characteristic of successful entrepreneurship. These personal networks act as systems of information that decrease uncertainty and transaction costs. See Casson, Mark, “Entrepreneurship and the Theory of the Firm,” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 58 (2005): 327–48Google Scholar and Boyce, Gordon and Ville, Simon, The Development of Modern Business (Basingstoke, 2002), 264–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For networks in the shipping industry, see Boyce, Gordon, Co-operative Structures in Global Business (London, 2001)Google Scholar.

²⁴ Onassis, “Our Postwar Shipping.”

²⁵ Opportunity recognition is one of the characteristics of an entrepreneur. Casson, Mark et al. , “Introduction,” in The Oxford Handbook of Entrepreneurship, ed. Casson, Mark et al. (Oxford, 2006), 1–30Google Scholar. Casson, “Entrepreneurship and the Theory of the Firm.”

²⁶ Harlaftis, A History of Greek-Owned Shipping, Appendix 6.6.

²⁷ Vlassopoulos, Costas, Σελίδες μιας ζωής [Pages of a Life] (Athens, 1994), 85–86Google Scholar. Costas Vlassopoulos, a close collaborator of Onassis, wrote a most valuable and objective study of Onassis and his business in his memoirs. Vlassopoulos, from a shipowning family on the island of Ithaca, was one of the managers of Olympic Maritime in Monte Carlo for thirty-one years and a member of the Alexander Onassis Foundation until 1992. As manager of an Onassis business, he was responsible for chartering, sales and purchases, shipbuilding contracts, and legal shipping activities.

²⁸ Onassis, “Our Postwar Shipping.”

²⁹ About Greek London offices, see Harlaftis, A History of Greek-Owned Shipping, 202–24.

³⁰ Ibid.

³¹ Metaxas, Basil N., The Economics of Tramp Shipping (London, 1971)Google Scholar. Stopford, Martin, Maritime Economics (London, 1997), 37–61Google Scholar.

³² Lloyd's Register of Shipping, 1933. Foustanos claims that he found the evidence on the price of the first two ships in the Archives of Greek Registers of Shipping of Piraeus; see Foustanos, George M., Onassis: Pioneering in Shipping (Piraeus, 2006)Google Scholar, 27.

³³ Onassis, “Our Postwar Shipping.”

³⁴ Harlaftis, A History of Greek-Owned Shipping, 202–24. According to the economist Casson, Mark, “an entrepreneur is someone who specializes in taking judgmental decisions about the coordination of scarce resources,” Casson, Mark, The Entrepreneur: An Economic Theory (Cheltenham, 2008)Google Scholar, 43. For entrepreneurship in Greek shipping companies, see Theotokas, Ioannis, “On the Top of World Shipping: Greek Shipping Companies' Organization and Management,” Research in Transportation Economics 21 (2007): 63–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁵ Sturmey, British Shipping and World Competition, 61–97. See also Tenold, Stig, “Crisis? What Crisis? The Expansion of Norwegian Shipping in the Interwar Period,” in Crisis and Transition: Maritime Sectors in the North Sea Region, 1790–1940, ed. Scholl, Lars U. and Williams, David M. (Bremerhaven, 2005)Google Scholar.

³⁶ Jacobsen, Alf R., Eventyret Anders Jahre (Oslo, 1982)Google Scholar. Naess, Erling D., Autobiography of a Shipping Man (Colchester, 1977)Google Scholar, 103.

³⁷ Jacobsen, Eventyret Anders Jahre, 60.

³⁸ In 1934, while traveling from Buenos Aires to Europe he met Ingeborg Dedichen, the daughter of the Norwegian shipowner Ingeval Martin Byde. Their affair lasted for almost a decade, and Ingeborg brought him into further contact with Scandinavian shipping circles. Dedichen, Ingeborg, Onassis Mon Amour (Paris, 1975)Google Scholar. Onassis, “Our Postwar Shipping.”

³⁹ The Koutsis brothers from Spetses bought the first Greek tanker in the 1890s. They were not successful with the vessel, however, and no other Greek shipowner followed their lead until Onassis. See Harlaftis, Beneki, and Haritatos, Ploto.

⁴⁰ Jacobsen, Eventyret Anders Jahre, 191.

⁴¹ Vlassopoulos, Pages of a Life, 82–83.

⁴² Thowsen, Atle, Handelsflåten i krig, 1939–1945: Nortraship. Profit tog patriotism, vol. 1 (Oslo, 1992)Google Scholar, 97.

⁴³ Foustanos, Onassis, 40–42.

⁴⁴ Casson, “Entrepreneurship and the Theory of the Firm.”

⁴⁵ Harlaftis, Gelina and Theotokas, John, “Maritime Business during the Twentieth Century: Continuity and Change,” in Handbook of Maritime Economics and Business, ed. Grammenos, C. Th. (London, 2002), 9–34Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ Vlassopoulos, Pages of a Life.

⁴⁷ Thowsen, Handelsflåten i krig, 97. See also “Norwegian Merchant Fleet, 1939–1945,” http://warsailors.com/singleships/aristophanes.html. See also Jacobsen, Eventyret Anders Jahre, 183.

⁴⁸ Thowsen, Handelsflåten i krig, 180. Thowsen based this information on Foreign Office archives: “Telegram from Sir R. Craigie, Tokyo, to the Foreign Office,” 15.4.1940, FO 371/25180, General Archives, U.K.

⁴⁹ Onassis, “Our Postwar Shipping.”

⁵⁰ “Fraud against the Government,” New York office 46-2507 report, 10 May 1952, 50, “Aristotle Onassis,” part 2, Bufile 46-17783, FBI.

⁵¹ See Onassis, “Our Postwar Shipping.”

⁵² Document 100-125834-5, 14 Sept. 1942, “Aristotle Onassis,” Bufile 100-125834, FBI.

⁵³ Document 100-125834-1, 18 July 1942, “Aristotle Onassis,” Bufile 100-125834, FBI.

⁵⁴ Theoharis, Athan G. and Cox, John Stuart, The Boss: J. Edgar Hoover and the Great American Inquisition (New York, 1988), 49–53Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ Document 100-125834-1, 18 July 1942, “Aristotle Onassis,” Bufile 100-125834, FBI. See also Harlaftis, Gelina, “Aristotle Onassis and FBI Archives in the 1940s,” Entreprises et Histoire 2 (2011): 80–85Google Scholar.

⁵⁶ Espionage on “Aristotle Onassis,” Los Angeles Bureau, 22 Mar. 1944, “Aristotle Onassis,” Bufile 100-125834, FBI.

⁵⁷ Onassis, “Our Postwar Shipping.” See also Naftika Chronika, 15 Mar. 1946, 1 Oct. 1947.

⁵⁸ Achee-Thornton, Rebecca and Thomson, Peter, “Learning from Experience and Learning from Others: An Exploration of Learning and Spillovers in Wartime Shipbuilding,” American Economic Review 91, no. 5 (Dec. 2001): 1350–68Google Scholar.

⁵⁹ Perry, Hobart S., “The Wartime Merchant Fleet and Postwar Shipping Requirements,” American Economic Review 36, no. 2 (May 1946): 520–46Google Scholar.

⁶⁰ Sawyer, L. S. and Mitchell, W. H., The Liberty Ships, 2^nd ed. (London, 1980)Google Scholar; Lane, Frederic C., Ships for Victory (Baltimore, 1951)Google Scholar. Achee-Thornton and Thomson, “Learning from Experience.”

⁶¹ Ibid.

⁶² More on the review in Hutchins, John G. B., “United Merchant Marine Policy and Surplus Ships,” Journal of Political Economy 59, no. 2 (Apr. 1951): 117–25Google Scholar. Marx, Daniel Jr., “The Merchant Ship Sales Act,” Journal of Business of the University of Chicago 21, no. 1 (Jan. 1948): 12–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Petersen, Kaare, The Saga of Norwegian Shipping (Oslo, 1955)Google Scholar, 190.

⁶³ Roth, Almon E., “Sea Transportation,” Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science 21, no. 2 (Jan. 1945): 4–16Google Scholar.

⁶⁴ Naftika Chronika, 15 Jan. 1947.

⁶⁵ “Under Two Flags: Foreign Registry of American Merchantmen,” Stanford Law Review 5, no. 4 (July 1953): 797–813Google Scholar.

⁶⁶ Costas Gratsos helped Onassis to write this memorandum, and the term “Onassiad” is attributed to him. See Fraser et al., Aristotle Onassis.

⁶⁷ Onassis, “Our Postwar Shipping.”

⁶⁸ “Asset play” means buying ships at low prices and selling them at high prices. For asset playing, see Stopford, Maritime Economics, 95–104. Naess, Autobiography, 113.

⁶⁹ Evidence from Director of FBI to Assistant Attorney General James M. McInerney (9 Jan. 1952) and from Allen J. Krouse to Fred E. Strine, Administrative Regulations Section, “U.S. Petroleum Carriers, Inc.” (31 Oct. 1951), “Aristotle Onassis,” part 2, Bufile 46-17783, FBI.

⁷⁰ Fraser et al., Aristotle Onassis.

⁷¹ “Fraud against the Government,” “Aristotle Onassis,” part 2, FBI. For details of the stock-holders of his companies see also Harlaftis, “Mr. Onassis and Game Theory,” Appendix 2.

⁷² Harlaftis, “Mr. Onassis and Game Theory,” see Appendix 1.

⁷³ Stopford, Maritime Economics, 197.

⁷⁴ United States House of Representatives, Study of Trade-Out and Build Activities of Onassis Companies: Hearings before the Special Subcommittee of the Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, House of Representatives, 85^th Congress, 2^nd sess., vol. 53 (Washington, D.C., 1958)Google Scholar. Vlassopoulos, Pages of a Life, 86–88.

⁷⁵ Onassis, “Our Postwar Shipping.”

⁷⁶ See, for example, the interview of Berenson who reveals details of how he and Onassis approached the oil companies and the banks. “Fraud against the Government,” 174–80, “Aristotle Onassis,” part 2, FBI.

⁷⁷ Allen J. Krouse, Special Assistant to the Attorney General, to Fred E. Strine, Administrative Regulations Section, “U.S. Petroleum Carriers, Inc.” (31 Oct. 1951), “Aristotle Onassis,” part 2, Bufile 46-17783, FBI.

⁷⁸ van B. Cleveland, Harold and Huertas, Thomas F., Citibank, 1812–1970 (Cambridge, Mass., 1985)Google Scholar, 231.

⁷⁹ Stopford, Maritime Economics, 304–5. See also Sturmey, British Shipping and World Competition, 61–97.

⁸⁰ See Vlassopoulos, Pages of a Life, 86–88. For Ludwig see Shields, Jerry, The Invisible Billionaire: Daniel Ludwig (New York, 1986)Google Scholar. Ludwig was in the top-ten list of American millionaires. See “List of 76 Said to Hold above 75 Millions,” New York Times, 28 Oct. 1957; on the building of Ludwig's tankers, see Arthur Richter, “Largest Tanker to be Launched,” New York Times, 5 Dec. 1958; for Erling Dekke Naess, see Naess, Autobiography; for Stavros Niarchos, see Carlisle, Rodney, Sovereignty for Sale: The Origins and Evolution of the Panamanian and Liberian Flags of Convenience (Maryland, 1981)Google Scholar.

⁸¹ Thowsen, Atle, Skipsfart og planøkonomi (Bergen, 1986)Google Scholar, 35.

⁸² See repeated reports of American shipyards building tankers, “New Tanker Sails on Maiden Voyage,” New York Times, 21 Nov. 1948; “New Supertanker Set for Launching,” New York Times, 23 Feb. 1950; “Last Supertanker In Group Launched,” New York Times, 25 Feb. 1950.

⁸³ Jacobsen, Eventyret Anders Jahre, 191.

⁸⁴ “Shipbuilding Deal on German Ways: Greek-American Capital Said to be Backing Purchase of Half-Interest in Kiel Yard,” New York Times, 22 June 1952.

⁸⁵ Vlassopoulos, Pages of a Life, 86–87.

⁸⁶ For a recent analysis on maritime business culture, see Miller, Europe and the Maritime World, 176–210.

⁸⁷ Theotokas, “On the Top of World Shipping.” Casson, Mark, Economics of Business Culture: Game Theory, Transaction Costs, and Economic Performance (Oxford, 1991)Google Scholar.

⁸⁸ Hoy, Frank and Verser, Trudy G., “Emerging Business, Emerging Field: Entrepreneurship and the Family Firm,” Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 19 (Fall 1994): 9–23Google Scholar.

⁸⁹ Papinianos, Ο δικηγόρος [The Lawyer] (Athens, 2003), 27–34Google Scholar. These are the memoirs of Tryphon Koutalidis, a Greek lawyer known under the pseudonym “Papinianos,” mainly in relation to Aristotle Onassis and Olympic Airways.

⁹⁰ Onassis, “Our Postwar Shipping.”

⁹¹ Theotokas and Harlaftis, Leadership in World Shipping, 191.

⁹² Nicolas Cokkinis, related to the large Greek traditional Embiricos family, had become a friend of Onassis in 1945. “Fraud against the Government,” “Aristotle Onassis,” part 2, FBI.

⁹³ Paizis-Danias, Dimitris, Θαλάσσης Μνήμες [Memories of the Sea] (Athens, 2008)Google Scholar, 99.

⁹⁴ “Fraud against the Government,” “Aristotle Onassis,” part 2, FBI.

⁹⁵ For the development of institutions in shipping, see Boyce, Gordon, “The Development of Commercial Infrastructure for World Shipping,” in “World's Key Industry”: History and Economics of International Shipping, ed. Harlaftis, Gelina, Tenold, Stig, and Valdaliso, Jesús M. (London, 2012), 106–23Google Scholar.

⁹⁶ An important element of successful entrepreneurship is innovation, not only in technology but also in management. See also Hébert, Robert F. and Link, Albert N., “In Search of the Meaning of Entrepreneurship,” Small Business Economics 1 (1989): 39–49Google Scholar.

⁹⁷ Jones, Geoffrey, “Business Enterprises and Global Worlds,” Enterprise and Society 3 (Dec. 2002): 581–605Google Scholar.

⁹⁸ Harlaftis and Theotokas, “Maritime Business during the Twentieth Century.”

⁹⁹ For the analysis of the organizational model of Greek-owned shipping, see Theotokas and Harlaftis, Leadership, ch. 2. “Flagging out” from traditional registers to flags of convenience was a major feature of interwar and particularly postwar international shipping. The flags of convenience of Panama, Honduras, and Liberia—known as the PanHoLib fleet—were cheap flags with low taxes where lax employment and operating conditions provided cheap sea transport for large American corporations like United Fruit or the oil companies. See Cafruny, Alan, Ruling the Waves: The Political Economy of International Shipping (Berkeley, 1987)Google Scholar. For a classic on flags of convenience, see Metaxas, Basil N., Flags of Convenience (London, 1985)Google Scholar. For the use of flags of convenience by American shipowners, see de la Pedraja, René, Rise and Decline of U.S. Merchant Shipping in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1992)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁰ Department of Justice, Memorandum for Mr. J. Edgar Hoover, Director FBI by Warren Burger, Assistant Attorney General, 4 Feb. 1953, “Aristotle Onassis,” part 1, Bufile 1100-125834, FBI.

¹⁰¹ “Fraud against the Government,” “Aristotle Onassis,” part 2, FBI.

¹⁰² Donovan, Robert J., Conflict and Crisis: The Presidency of Harry Truman, 1945–1948 (Columbia, Mo., 1996)Google Scholar.

¹⁰³ Ibid.

¹⁰⁴ Office Memorandum from Warren Olney III, Assistant Attorney General, Criminal Division to the Director of FBI, subject “United States v. Onassis et al.,” 28 Dec. 1955, “Aristotle Onassis,” part 3, Bufile 46-17783, FBI.

¹⁰⁵ Office Memorandum from C. A. Evans to Rosen, “North American Shipping and Trading, Inc., et al., Fraud against the Government,” 2 Feb. 1954, “Aristotle Onassis,” part 3, Bufile 46-17783, FBI.

¹⁰⁶ United States District Court for the District of Columbia, Holding a Criminal Term, Grand Jury Impaneled on 2 Sept. 1952, “The Grand Jury Charges,” “Aristotle Onassis,” part 3, Bufile 46-17783, FBI.

¹⁰⁷ Warren Olney III, Assistant Attorney General, Criminal Division, to Director, FBI, “Victory Carriers Inc. et al.,” 1 Mar. 1954, “Aristotle Onassis,” part 3, Bufile 46-17783, FBI.

¹⁰⁸ Edith Evans Asbury, “Once Penniless Man Here Buys Control of Monte Carlo Casinos,” New York Times, 16 Jan. 1953.

¹⁰⁹ Hamilton, Maxwell, “The Man who Bought the Bank at Monte Carlo,” True: The Man's Magazine (Dec. 1954): 17–20Google Scholar, 83–86.

¹¹⁰ Office Memorandum from A. H. Belmont to L. V. Boardman, “Visit to Middle East and North Africa by Bureau's Army Liaison Representative,” 16 June 1954, “Aristotle Onassis,” part 4, Bufile 46-17783, FBI.

¹¹¹ Allen J. Krouse to Fred E. Strine, Administrative Regulations Section, “U.S. Petroleum Carriers, Inc.,” 31 Oct. 1951, “Aristotle Onassis,” part 2, Bufile 46-17783, FBI.

¹¹² Interviews with bankers are blackened on pages 72–74, 78, 89, 93–96, 107–11, and 163–65; with the Metropolitan Life Insurance company executives on pages 60–61 and 163–65; and with oil company executives on pages 98–101. “Fraud against the Government,” “Aristotle Onassis,” part 2, FBI.

¹¹³ “Visit to Middle East and North Africa by Bureau's Army Liaison Representative,” “Aristotle Onassis,” part 4, FBI. For taking the case to arbitration, see “Aramco Hearing Opens,” New York Times, 16 June 1955. The court at The Hague finally passed an agreement in 1958 in favor of Aramco.

¹¹⁴ “Peru Frees 8 U.S. Ships,” New York Times, 22 Feb. 1955; “Onassis Pays $3,000,000 Fine,” New York Times, 14 Dec. 1954; “Onassis Fine Being Paid,” New York Times, 13 Dec. 1954. On the Onassis whaling fleet, see Barthelmess, Klaus, “A Century of German Interests in Modern Whaling, 1860s–1960s,” in Whaling and History: Perspectives on the Evolution of the Industry, ed. Basberg, Bjorn L., Ringstad, Jan Erik, and Wexelsen, Einar (Sanderfjord, 1993), 121–38Google Scholar. Fraser et al., Aristotle Onassis, 163.

¹¹⁵ Fraser et al., Aristotle Onassis, 194. For the boycott of Onassis's ships from Aramco, see “Biggest Tanker Idle in Hamburg,” New York Times, 23 Feb. 1955; “Onassis in Cairo for Oil Case Talk,” New York Times, 20 Jan. 1955.

¹¹⁶ Fraser et al., Aristotle Onassis, 194.

¹¹⁷ Manuel Kulukundis and his brothers were indicted on charges of conspiracy to defraud on December 22, 1953. Charges against Manuel Kulukundis were dismissed in January 1954 and against the rest of the Kulukundis brothers more than a year later. See “Ship Sales Fraud Charged to Five,” New York Times, 23 Dec. 1953; “Greek Shipowners Indicted for Fraud in Ship Purchases,” Washington Post, 5 Jan. 1954; “Court Winds Up Ship Sale Case,” New York Times, 29 Nov. 1955.

¹¹⁸ The report by the New York Times is accurate when compared with the original agreement in FBΙ files. Luther A. Huston, “Ship Owner Pays 7 Million Penalty,” New York Times, 22 Dec. 1955.

¹¹⁹ Something he never did, causing another notorious encounter with the American government instigated by Democratic United States Representative Herbert Zelenko, who proposed and carried out a Congressional investigation in 1957–1958 both on the agreement between the Maritime Administration and Onassis and on the cancellation of the construction of new ships due to Onassis's allegation of depressed markets. All the proceedings of the hearings are in U.S. House of Representatives, Study of Trade-Out and Build Activities of Onassis Companies.

¹²⁰ Fraser et al., Aristotle Onassis, 142.

¹²¹ Memorandum for Mr. J. Edgar Hoover, “Aristotle Onassis,” part 1, FBI.

¹²² Shields, The Invisible Billionaire; Dero A. Saunders, “The Wide Oceans of D. K. Ludwig,” Fortune, May 1957.

¹²³ Carlisle, Sovereignty for Sale.

¹²⁴ U.S. House of Representatives, Study of Trade-Out and Build Activities of Onassis Companies, 206.

¹²⁵ Ibid., 176.

¹²⁶ Fraser et al., Aristotle Onassis.

¹²⁷ Onassis, “Our Postwar Shipping.”

¹²⁸ For Onassis Foundation see http://www.onassis.gr/.

¹²⁹ Theotokas and Harlaftis, Leadership in World Shipping, 247–50.