Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-jr42d Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-18T21:33:02.543Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

RESEARCH ARTICLE: Communication Challenges for Complex Policy Issues: An Illustration with Multimedia Radon Mitigation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 May 2014

Branden B. Johnson*
Affiliation:
Decision Research, Eugene, Oregon
*
Address correspondence to: Branden B. Johnson, Decision Research, 1201 Oak Street, Suite 200, Eugene, OR 97401; (phone) 541-485-2400; (fax) 541-485-2403; (e-mail) branden@decisionresearch.org.
Get access

Abstract

Communication challenges of environmental management are magnified for uncertain policy options and trade-offs involving complex issues. A novel risk-trading option authorized by Congress for setting standards for radon levels in drinking water illustrates interactions and gaps among scholarly advice, practitioner behavior, and citizen responses, as revealed in utility-customer focus groups. The aim of the focus groups was to identify citizen-preferred options (including any not yet suggested by policy makers) and difficulties in presenting needed background information so that policy preferences are valid and reliable if elicited in the future. This commentary covers such topics as effects of knowledge, risk comparisons and information framing, values clarification, presentation of policy options and evaluation, and their implications for risk communication and policy development.

Environmental Practice 16: 113–126 (2014)

Type
Features
Copyright
© National Association of Environmental Professionals 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Arvai, J., and Gregory, R.. 2003. Testing Alternative Decision Approaches for Identifying Cleanup Priorities at Contaminated Sites. Environmental Science & Technology 37(8):14691476.Google Scholar
Atman, C.J., Bostrom, A., Fischhoff, B., and Morgan, M.G.. 1994. Designing Risk Communications: Completing and Correcting Mental Models of Hazardous Processes, Part I. Risk Analysis 14(5):779788.Google Scholar
Beierle, T.C., and Cayford, J. 2002. Democracy in Practice: Public Participation in Environmental Decisions. RFF Press, Washington, DC, 149 pp.Google Scholar
Bickerstaff, K., Simmons, P., and Pidgeon, N. 2008. Constructing Responsibilities for Risk: Negotiating Citizen-State Relationships. Environment and Planning A 40(6):13121330.Google Scholar
Bickerstaff, K., and Walker, G. 2002. Risk, Responsibility, and Blame: An Analysis of Vocabularies of Motive in Air-pollution(ing) Discourses. Environment and Planning A 34(12):21752192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bostrom, A., Atman, C.J., Fischhoff, B., and Morgan, M.G. 1994. Evaluating Risk Communications: Completing and Correcting Mental Models of Hazardous Processes, Part II. Risk Analysis 14(5): 789798.Google Scholar
Bostrom, A., Fischhoff, B., and Morgan, M.G.. 1992. Characterizing Mental Models of Hazardous Processes: A Methodology and an Application to Radon. Journal of Social Issues 48(4):85100.Google Scholar
Chess, C. 2000. Evaluating Environmental Public Participation: Methodological Questions. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 43(6):769784.Google Scholar
Chi, P.S.K., and Laquatra, J.. 1990. Energy Efficiency and Radon Risks in Residential Housing. Energy 15(2):8189.Google Scholar
Cole, L.A. 1993. Element of Risk: The Politics of Radon. American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, DC, 246 pp.Google Scholar
Covello, V.T., Sandman, P.M., and Slovic, P.. 1988. Risk Communication, Risk Statistics, and Risk Comparisons: A Manual for Plant Managers. Chemical Manufacturers Association, Washington, DC, 57 pp.Google Scholar
Dawson, I.A.G.J., Johnson, J.E.V., and Luke, M.A.. 2013. Helping Individuals to Understand Synergistic Risks: An Assessment of Message Contents Depicting Mechanistic and Probabilistic Concepts. Risk Analysis 33(5):851865.Google Scholar
Edelstein, M.R., and Makofske, W.J. 1998. Radon’s Deadly Daughters: Science, Environmental Policy, and the Politics of Risk. Rowman and Littlefield, Lanham, MD, 361 pp.Google Scholar
Fischhoff, B. 1995. Risk Perception and Communication Unplugged: Twenty Years of Process. Risk Analysis 15(2):137145.Google Scholar
Fiske, A.P., and Tetlock., P.E. 1997. Taboo Trade-offs: Reactions to Transactions That Transgress Spheres of Justice. Political Psychology 18(2):255297.Google Scholar
Freudenburg, W.R., and Rursch, J.A.. 1994. The Risks of “Putting the Numbers in Context”: A Cautionary Tale. Risk Analysis 14(6):949958.Google Scholar
Gregory, R.S. 2002. Incorporating Value Trade-offs into Community-Based Environmental Risk decisions. Environmental Values 11(4):461488.Google Scholar
Hamilton, R.W. 2003. Why Do People Suggest What They Do Not Want? Using Context Effects to Influence Others’ Choices. Journal of Consumer Research 29(4):492506.Google Scholar
Hampson, S.E., Andrews, J.A., Lee, M.E., Foster, L.S., Glasgow, R.E., and Lichtenstein, E.. 1998. Lay Understanding of Synergistic Risk: The Case of Radon and Cigarette Smoking. Risk Analysis 18(3):343350.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hampson, S.E., Andrews, J.A., Lee, M.E., Lichtenstein, E., and Barckley, M. 2000. Radon and Cigarette Smoking: Perceptions of This Synergistic Risk. Health Psychology 19(3):247252.Google Scholar
Hance, B.J., Chess, C., and Sandman, P.M.. 1988. Improving Dialogue with Communities: A Risk Communication Manual for Government. New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Trenton, 83 pp.Google Scholar
Hansson, S.O. 1997. Incomparable Risks. In Proceedings: New Risk Frontiers, B.-M. Drottz-Sjöberg, ed. Center for Risk Research, Stockholm, 594599.Google Scholar
Hibbard, J.H., Peters, E., Slovic, P., Finucane, M.L., and Tusler, M.. 2001. Making Health Care Quality Reports Easier to Use. Journal on Quality Improvement 27(11):591604.Google Scholar
Indyk, D., and Rier, D.A. 1993. Grassroots AIDS Knowledge: Implications for the Boundaries of Science and Collective Action. Science Communication 15(1):343.Google Scholar
Johnson, B.B. 2003a. Are Some Risk Comparisons More Effective under Conflict? A Replication and Extension of Roth et al. Risk Analysis 23(4):767780.Google Scholar
Johnson, B.B. 2003b. Further Notes on Public Response to Uncertainty in Risk and Science. Risk Analysis 23(4):781789.Google Scholar
Johnson, B.B. 2004a. Erratum to “Further Notes on Public Response to Uncertainty in Risk and Science.”. Risk Analysis 23(4), 2003. Risk Analysis 24(3):781.Google Scholar
Johnson, B.B. 2004b. Risk Comparisons, Conflict, and Risk Acceptability Claims. Risk Analysis 24(1):131145.Google Scholar
Johnson, B.B. 2004c. Varying Risk Comparison Elements: Effects on Public Reactions. Risk Analysis 24(1):103114.Google Scholar
Johnson, B.B. 2008. Public Views on Health Standards as Risk Indicators. Risk Analysis 28(6):15151530.Google Scholar
Laquatra, J. 2005. Indoor Air Pollutants: Limited-Resource Households and Child Care Facilities. Journal of Environmental Health 67(7):3943.Google Scholar
Lee, M.E., Lichtenstein, E., Andrews, J.A., Glasgow, R.E., and Hampson, S.E.. 1999. Radon-Smoking Synergy: A Population-Based Behavioral Risk Reduction Approach. Preventive Medicine 29(3):222227.Google Scholar
Lee, S., and Roth, W.-M. 2003. Science and the “Good Citizen”: Community-Based Scientific Literacy. Science, Technology, & Human Values 28(3):403424.Google Scholar
Lichtenstein, E., Andrews, J.A., Lee, M.E., Glasgow, R.E., and Hampson, S.E.. 2000. Using Radon Risk to Motivate Smoking Reduction: Evaluation of Written Materials and Brief Telephone Counselling. Tobacco Control 9(3):320326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGraw, A.P., and Tetlock, P.E. 2005. Taboo Trade-offs, Relational Framing, and the Acceptability of Exchanges. Journal of Consumer Psychology 15(1):215.Google Scholar
Michael, M. 1998. Between Citizen and Consumer: Multiplying the Meanings of the “Public Understanding of Science”. Public Understanding of Science 7(4):313327.Google Scholar
Michael, M. 2002. Comprehension, Apprehension, Prehension: Heterogeneity and the Public Understanding of Science. Science, Technology, & Human Values 27(3):357378.Google Scholar
Miller, J.D. 1998. The Measurement of Civic Scientific Literacy. Public Understanding of Science 7(3):203223.Google Scholar
Miller, J.D. 2004. Public Understanding of, and Attitudes toward, Scientific Research: What We Know and What We Need to Know. Public Understanding of Science 13(3):273294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, M.G., Fischhoff, B., Bostrom, A., and Atman, C.J.. 2002. Risk Communication: A Mental Models Approach. Cambridge University Press, New York, 351 pp.Google Scholar
National Research Council, Committee on Risk Assessment of Exposure to Radon in Drinking Water. 1999. Risk Assessment of Radon in Drinking Water. National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 273 pp.Google Scholar
New Jersey Drinking Water Quality Institute (NJDWQI). 2009. Maximum Contaminant Level Recommendation Document on Radon-222 (prepared by Radon Subcommittee of the NJDWQI). New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Trenton, 84 pp. Available at http://www.nj.gov/dep/watersupply/g_boards_dwqi.html.Google Scholar
Otway, H., and Thomas, K.. 1982. Reflections on Risk Perception and Policy. Risk Analysis 2(2):6982.Google Scholar
Peters, E., Dieckmann, N., Dixon, A., Hibbard, J.H., and Mertz, C.K.. 2007. Less Is More in Presenting Quality Information to Consumers. Medical Care Research and Review 64(2):169190.Google Scholar
Pflugh, K.K., Shaw, J.A., and Johnson, B.B. 1992. Establishing Dialogue: Planning for Successful Environmental Management; A Guide to Effective Communication Planning. Division of Science and Research, New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection and Energy, Trenton, 28 pp. Available at http://www.state.nj.us/dep/dsr/publications/dialogue.pdf.Google Scholar
Raucher, R.S., Crawford-Brown, D., and Harrod, M. 2005. New Perspectives on the Costs and Benefits of Mitigating Radon in Drinking Water. Public Works Management & Policy 10(1):1022.Google Scholar
Roth, W.-M., and Lee, S.. 2002. Scientific Literacy as Collective Praxis. Public Understanding of Science 11(1):3356.Google Scholar
Roth, E., Morgan, M.G., Fischhoff, B., Lave, L., and Bostrom, A.. 1990. What Do We Know about Making Risk Comparisons? Risk Analysis 10(3):375387.Google Scholar
Rowe, G., and Frewer, L.J.. 2000. Public Participation Methods: A Framework for Evaluation. Science, Technology, & Human Values 25(1):329.Google Scholar
Rowe, G., and Frewer, L.J.. 2004. Evaluating Public-Participation Exercises: A Research Agenda. Science, Technology, & Human Values 29(4):512556.Google Scholar
Royal Society of London. 1985. The Public Understanding of Science. Royal Society, London, 41 pp.Google Scholar
Sandman, P.M., Weinstein, N.D., and Miller, P.. 1994. High Risk or Low: How Location on a “Risk Ladder” Affects Perceived Risk. Risk Analysis 14(1):3546.Google Scholar
Santos, S.L., and Chess, C.. 2003. Evaluating Citizen Advisory Boards: The Importance of Theory and Participant-Based Criteria and Practical Implications. Risk Analysis 23(2):269279.Google Scholar
Slovic, P., Kraus, N., and Covello, V.T.. 1990. What Should We Know about Making Risk Comparisons? Risk Analysis 10(3):389392.Google Scholar
Stern, P.C., and Fineberg, H.V., eds. 1996. Understanding Risk: Informing Decisions in a Democratic Society. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 250 pp.Google Scholar
Stone, R.. 1993. EPA Analysis of Radon in Water Is Hard to Swallow. Science 261(5128):15141516.Google Scholar
Tversky, A., and Kahneman, D.. 1981. The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice. Science 211(4481):453458.Google Scholar
US Congress. 1996. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996. Available at http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-104publ182/html/PLAW-104publ182.htm.Google Scholar
US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1991. July 18. 40 CFR 141 and 142: National Primary Drinking Water Regulations; Radionuclides; Notice of Data Availability; Proposed Rule. Federal Register 56(136):33050–33127. Available at http://tinyurl.com/mq89ens.Google Scholar
US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1994, February. Report to the United States Congress on Radon in Drinking Water: Multimedia Risk and Cost Assessment of Radon. EPA 811-R-94-001. USEPA Office of Drinking Water, Washington, DC, 16 pp. Available at http://cfpub.epa.gov/ols/catalog/advanced_brief_record.cfm?&FIELD1=SUBJECT&INPUT1=Biological%20radiation%20effects&TYPE1=EXACT&LOGIC1=AND&COLL=&SORT_TYPE=MTIC&item_count=41.Google Scholar
US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997, August 6. 40 CFR 141 and 142: Withdrawal of the Proposed National Primary Drinking Water Regulation for Radon-222. Federal Register 62(151):42221–422222. Available at http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/sdwa/radon/upload/Federal-Register-Notice-on-Radon-in-Drinking-Water.pdf.Google Scholar
US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1999, November 2. 40 CFR 141 and 142: National Primary Drinking Water Regulations; Radon-222. Federal Register 64(211):59246–59378. Available at http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/granule/FR-1999-11-02/99-27741/content-detail.html.Google Scholar
US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 2000, April 21. 40 CFR 141 and 142: National Primary Drinking Water Regulations; Radionuclides; Notice of Data Availability; Proposed. Federal Register 65(78):21576–21628. Available at http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2000-04-21/html/00-9654.htm.Google Scholar
US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 2014, April. Proposed Radon in Drinking Water Regulation. USEPA, Washington, DC. http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/sdwa/radon/regulations.cfm.Google Scholar
Vitaliano, D.F.. 2003. Costs and Benefits of Mitigating Radon in Drinking Water. Public Works Management & Policy 7(4):291303.Google Scholar
Weinstein, N.D., and Sandman, P.M.. 1993. Some Criteria for Evaluating Risk Messages. Risk Analysis 13(1):103114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wynne, B.. 1992. Public Understanding of Science Research: New Horizons or Hall of Mirrors? Public Understanding of Science 1(1):3743.Google Scholar
Wynne, B.. 1996. May the Sheep Safely Graze? A Reflexive View of the Expert–Lay Knowledge Divide. In Risk, Environment & Modernity: Towards a New Ecology, S. Lash, B. Szerszynski, and B. Wynne, eds. Sage, London, 4483.Google Scholar