¹ While Libya cannot be said to be part of Francophone Africa, there is a long and convoluted history of French-Libyan relations and involvement in African conflicts, notably in Chad in the 1980s. On the French role in the 2011 Libyan war, see Notin, Jean-Christophe, La vérité sur notre guerre en Libye (Paris: Fayard, 2012)Google Scholar. On the French role in the Chad-Sudan-Darfur conflict system during the European Union 2008–9 military deployment, see Charbonneau, Bruno, ‘France’, in Black, David and Williams, Paul (eds), The International Politics of Mass Atrocities: The Case of Darfur (London: Routledge, 2010), pp. 213–31Google Scholar.

² On the French military intervention in Mali, see Charbonneau, Bruno and Sears, Jonathan, ‘Defending Neoliberal Mali: French Military Intervention and the Management of Contested Political Narratives’ in Kühn, Florian and Turner, Mandy (eds), Where Has All the Peace Gone? The Politics of International Intervention (London: Routledge, forthcoming)Google Scholar.

³ French President François Hollande refused to rescue the President of the Central African Republic François Bozizé when the rebels reached Bangui in December 2012. Yet, the French military has kept about 200 soldiers in the country since 2003. After the coup d'état of 24 March 2013, the force was strengthened to 550 troops to protect French citizens and interests. Operation Boali officially supports the Mission for the consolidation of peace in Central African Republic (MICOPAX) that is since 12 July 2008 under the responsibility of the Economic Community of Central African States.

⁴ Charbonneau, Bruno and Chafer, Tony (eds), Peace Operations in the Francophone World: Global Governance Meets Post-Colonialism (London: Routledge, 2014)Google Scholar.

⁵ Granvaud, Raphaël, Que fait l'armée française en Afrique? (Marseille: Agone, 2009)Google Scholar.

⁶ Tshimanga, Charles, Gondola, Didier, and Bloom, Peter (eds), Frenchness and the African Diaspora: Identity and Uprising in Contemporary France (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009)Google Scholar.

⁷ Jean-François Bayart and Romain Bertrand, ‘De quel “leg colonial” parle-t-on?’, Esprit (December 2006), pp. 134–60.

⁸ Kühn, Florian, ‘The Peace Prefix: Ambiguities of the Word Peace’, International Peacekeeping, 19:4 (2012), pp. 396–409CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pugh, Michael, ‘Reflections on Aggressive Peace’, International Peacekeeping, 19:4 (2012), pp. 410–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹ Doyle, Michael, ‘The John W. Holmes Lecture: Building Peace’, Global Governance, 13:1 (2007), p. 9Google Scholar.

¹⁰ For an overview of these critical differences, see Barnett, Michael, Kim, Hunjoon, O'Donnell, Madalene, and Sitea, Laura, ‘Peacebuilding: What Is in a Name?’, Global Governance, 13:1 (2007), pp. 35–58Google Scholar.

¹¹ Barnett et al., ‘Peacebuilding’, p. 44.

¹² For instance, see Newman, Edward, ‘The Violence of Statebuilding in Historical Perspective: Implications for Peacebuilding’, Peacebuilding, 1:1 (2013), pp. 141–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹³ Cooper, Neil, ‘Review Article: On the Crisis of the Liberal Peace’, Conflict, Security and Development, 7:4 (2007), pp. 605–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁴ Richmond, Oliver P., ‘Introduction’, in Richmond, Oliver P. (ed.), Palgrave Advances in Peacebuilding: Critical Developments and Approaches (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), p. 2CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁵ Paris, Roland, ‘Saving Liberal Peacebuilding’, Review of International Studies, 36:2 (2010), p. 339CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁶ Chandler, David, Empire in Denial: The Politics of State-building (London: Pluto Press, 2006)Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Barnett, Michael, Empire of Humanity: A History of Humanitarianism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2011)Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Cunliffe, Philippe, ‘Still the Spectre at the Feast: Comparisons between Peacekeeping and Imperialism in Peacekeeping Studies Today’, International Peacekeeping, 19:4 (2012), p. 429CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁹ Ottaway, Marina and Lacina, Bethany, ‘International Interventions and Imperialism: Lessons from the 1990s’, SAIS Review, 23:2 (2003), pp. 71–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Marten, Kimberly Zisk, Enforcing the Peace: Learning from the Imperial Past (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁰ Bellamy, Alex and Williams, Paul, ‘Introduction: Thinking Anew about Peace Operations’, International Peacekeeping, 11:1 (2004), p. 12CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²¹ Doyle, Michael and Sambanis, Nicholas, Making War and Building Peace: United Nations Peace Operations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), p. 318Google Scholar.

²² Cunliffe, ‘Still the Spectre at the Feast’.

²³ Duffield, Mark, Development, Security and Unending War: Governing the World of Peoples (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2007)Google Scholar.

²⁴ Heathershaw, John, ‘Unpacking the Liberal Peace: The Dividing and Merging of Peacebuilding Discourses’, Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 36:3 (2008), pp. 597–621CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁵ Stark, Lindsay, ‘Cleansing the Wounds of War: An Examination of Traditional Healing, Psychosocial Health and Reintegration in Sierra Leone’, Intervention, 4:3 (2006), pp. 206–18CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁶ Wessells, Michael and Monteiro, Carlinda, ‘Psychological Intervention and Post-war Reconstruction in Angola’, in Christie, D. and Wagner, R.V. (eds), Peace, Conflict and Violence: Peace Psychology for the 21st Century (New York: Prentice Hall, 2001), pp. 262–75Google Scholar.

²⁷ Summerfield, Derek, ‘The Effects of War: Moral Knowledge, Revenge, Reconciliation and Recovery’, British Medical Journal, 325:7372 (2002), pp. 1105–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pupavac, Vanessa, ‘International Therapeutic Peace and Justice in Bosnia’, Social and Legal Studies, 13:3 (2004), pp. 377–401CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁸ Lefranc, Sandrine, ‘A Critique of “Bottom-up” Peacebuilding’, in Charbonneau, Bruno and Parent, Geneviève (eds), Peacebuilding, Memory and Reconciliation: Bridging Top-down and Bottom-up Approaches (London: Routledge, 2012), pp. 34–52Google Scholar.

²⁹ Parent, Geneviève, ‘Peacebuilding, Healing, Reconciliation: An Analysis of Unseen Connections for Peace’, International Peacekeeping, 18:4 (2011), pp. 375–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁰ Charbonneau, Bruno and Parent, Geneviève (eds), Peacebuilding, Healing, Reconciliation: Bridging Top-down and Bottom-up Approaches (London: Routledge, 2012)Google Scholar.

³¹ Ginty, Roger Mac and Williams, Andrew, Conflict and Development (New York: Routledge, 2009), p. 51Google Scholar.

³² Pugh, Michael, Cooper, Neil, and Turner, Mandy (eds), Whose Peace? Critical Perspectives on the Political Economy of Peacebuilding (New York: Palgrave, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³³ Cooper, Neil, Turner, Mandy, and Pugh, Michael, ‘The End of History and the Last Liberal Peacebuilder: a Reply to Roland Paris’, Review of International Studies, 37:4 (2011), p. 2000CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁴ Richmond, Oliver, ‘A Pedagogy of Peacebuilding: Infrapolitics, Resistance, and Liberation’, International Political Sociology, 6:2 (2012), pp. 115–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁵ Richmond, Oliver, A Post-liberal Peace (London/New York: Routledge, 2011)Google Scholar; Ginty, Roger Mac, International Peacebuilding and Local Resistance: Hybrid Forms of Peace (New York: Palgrave, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁶ Lidén, Kristoffer, Ginty, Roger Mac, and Richmond, Oliver, ‘Introduction: Beyond Northern Epistemologies of Peace: Peacebuilding Reconstructed?’, International Peacekeeping, 16:5 (2009), p. 593CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁷ Mitchell, Audra, ‘Quality/control: International Peace Interventions and the “Everyday”’, Review of International Studies, 37:4 (2011), pp. 1623–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁸ Chandler, David, ‘Critiquing Liberal Cosmopolitanism? The Limits of the Biopolitical Approach’, International Political Sociology, 3:1 (2009), pp. 53–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁹ Chandler, David, ‘The Uncritical Critique of the Liberal Peace’, Review of International Studies, 36:S1 (2010), pp. 137–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁰ Chandler, David, International Statebuilding: The Rise of Post-Liberal Governance (New York: Routledge, 2010), p. 40Google Scholar.

⁴¹ Walker, R.B.J., After the Globe, Before the World (New York: Routledge, 2010)Google Scholar.

⁴² Colás, Alejandro, Empire (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2007), p. 21Google Scholar.

⁴³ Walker, R.B.J., ‘Lines of Insecurity: International, Imperial, Exceptional’, Security Dialogue, 37:1 (2006), p. 72CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁴ Walker, R.B.J., Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993)Google Scholar.

⁴⁵ Barkawi, Tarak, ‘Empire and Order in International Relations and Security Studies’, in Denemark, Robert (ed.), The International Studies Encylopedia, Vol. III (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), pp. 1360–79Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ Walker, After the Globe, Before the World.

⁴⁷ Saskia Sassen interviewed in Kenway, Jane and Fahey, Johannah (eds), Globalizing the Research Imagination (New York: Routledge, 2009), p. 125Google Scholar.

⁴⁸ On this conceptual necessity, Weber, Cynthia, ‘Reconsidering Statehood: Examining the Sovereignty/intervention Boundary’, Review of International Studies, 18:3 (1992), pp. 207–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁹ Chafer, Tony, The End of Empire in French West Africa: France's Successful Decolonization? (Oxford: Berg, 2002)Google Scholar.

⁵⁰ See the chapters in Chafer, Tony and Keese, Alex (eds), Francophone Africa at Fifty (Manchester University Press, 2013)Google Scholar.

⁵¹ Richmond, Oliver, Peace in International Relations (London/New York: Routledge, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵² Thomas, Martin, ‘Introduction: Mapping Violence Onto French Colonial Minds’, in Thomas, Martin (ed.), The French Colonial Mind, Volume 2 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2011), pp. xi–liiiGoogle Scholar.

⁵³ Cooper, Frederick, Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005)Google Scholar.

⁵⁴ Wilder, Gary, The French Imperial Nation-State: Negritude and Colonial Humanitarianism between the Two World Wars (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), pp. 21–2Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ Stoler, Ann Laura and Cooper, Frederick, ‘Between Metropole and Colony: Rethinking a Research Agenda’, in Cooper, Frederick and Stoler, Ann Laura (eds), Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), pp. 1–37Google Scholar.

⁵⁶ Clayton, Anthony, France, Soldiers and Africa (London: Brassey's Defence Publishers, 1988), p. 19Google Scholar.

⁵⁷ Echenberg, Myron, Les Tirailleurs sénégalais en Afrique occidentale française (1857–1960) (Paris: Karthala, 2009)Google Scholar.

⁵⁸ Clayton, France, Soldiers and Africa, p. 4.

⁵⁹ Joly, Vincent, Guerres d'Afrique: 130 ans de guerres coloniales. L'expérience française (Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2009), p. 8Google Scholar.

⁶⁰ While I have limited myself to military practices, the history of imperial violence should include colonial policing practices of all corps habillés (state security forces, as commonly called in Francophone Africa). See Bat, Jean-Pierre and Courtin, Nicolas (eds), Maintenir l'ordre colonial: Afrique et Madagascar, XIXe–XXe siècles (Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2012)Google Scholar.

⁶¹ Bancel, Nicolas, Blanchard, Pascal, and Vergès, Françoise, La République coloniale: essai sur une utopie (Paris: Albin Michel, 2003)Google Scholar.

⁶² Thomas, ‘Introduction: Mapping Violence’, p. xxvii.

⁶³ Chafer, Tony, ‘French African Policy in Historical Perspective’, Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 19:2 (2001), p. 167CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁴ Bagayoko-Penone, Niagalé, Afrique: les stratégies française et américaine (Paris: L'Harmattan, 2003), pp. 164–72Google Scholar.

⁶⁵ Camille Évrard, La transmission du pouvoir militaire en Mauritanie 1955–1965. Mémoire de Master 2 Recherches en Histoire sous la direction du Professeur Pierre Boilley, Université Paris 1 (2008).

⁶⁶ Charbonneau, Bruno, France and the New Imperialism: Security Policy in Sub-Saharan Africa (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008)Google Scholar.

⁶⁷ Charbonneau, France and the New Imperialism, pp. 68–72.

⁶⁸ In Benot, Yves, Massacres coloniaux 1944–1950: la IV^e République et la mise au pas des colonies françaises (Paris: La Découverte, 1994), p. 33Google Scholar.

⁶⁹ This is to be distinguished from the use of ‘peace’ by Cold War anti-war/peace movements.

⁷⁰ Luckham, Robin, ‘Le militarisme français en Afrique’, Politique Africaine, 6 (June 1982), pp. 45–71Google Scholar.

⁷¹ Charbonneau, France and the New Imperialism.

⁷² Charbonneau, Bruno, ‘Les effets du prisme de l'Atlantique sur les relations de sécurité Nord-Sud: Le cas de l'Afrique francophone’, in Brunelle, Dorval (ed.), Repenser l'Atlantique (Brussels: Bruylant, 2012), pp. 395–418Google Scholar.

⁷³ Bayart, Jean-François, The State in Africa: the Politics of the Belly (2nd edn, Malden: Polity Press, 2009)Google Scholar.

⁷⁴ A good example is the French military involvement in the Libyan-Chadian-Sudanese wars of the 1970s and 1980s, where African elites had, arguably, more influence on French policy than the French government had on the conflict. See Burr, J. Millard and Collins, Robert, Africa's Thirty Years War: Chad, Libya, and the Sudan, 1963–1993 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1999)Google Scholar.

⁷⁵ Kroslak, Daniela, The Role of France in the Rwandan Genocide (London: Hurst, 2007)Google Scholar.

⁷⁶ Charbonneau, France and the New Imperialism, pp. 121–48. See also de Saint-Exupéry, Patrick, L'inavouable: la France au Rwanda (Paris: Les Arènes, 2004)Google Scholar.

⁷⁷ Gounin, Yves, La France en Afrique: Le combat des Anciens et des Modernes (De Boeck, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁸ Charbonneau, Bruno, ‘What Is So Special about the European Union? EU-UN Cooperation in Crisis Management in Africa’, International Peacekeeping, 16:4 (2009), pp. 546–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁹ Assemblée nationale (France), Rapport d'information sur la politique de la France en Afrique (Paris: Commission des Affaires étrangères, 13^e législature, no. 1332, 2008), p. 68Google Scholar. See also France-Sénat, , Rapport d'information sur la gestion des crises en Afrique subsaharienne (Paris: Commission des Affaires étrangères, de la défense et des forces armées, no. 450, 2006), pp. 34, 39Google Scholar.

⁸⁰ France, , Défense et Sécurité nationale – Le Livre blanc (Paris: Odile Jacob/La Documentation française, 2008), p. 154Google Scholar.

⁸¹ Charbonneau, France and the New Imperialism, pp. 73–92.

⁸² France, Défense et Sécurité nationale, p. 23.

⁸³ Ibid., p. 44.

⁸⁴ Ibid., p. 154.

⁸⁵ Cited in ‘Ouattara solennellement investi président de la Côte d'Ivoire’, Le Monde (21 May 2011), author's translation.

⁸⁶ Roland Marchal, ‘Briefing: Military (Mis)Adventures in Mali’, African Affairs, advance access published 30 May 2013.

⁸⁷ For an analysis of the peace operations in Côte d'Ivoire, including the 2010–11 events, see Charbonneau, Bruno, ‘War and Peace in Côte d'Ivoire: Violence, Agency and the Local/International Line’, International Peacekeeping, 19:4 (2012), pp. 508–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bellamy, Alex and Williams, Paul, ‘The New Politics of Protection? Côte d'Ivoire, Libya and the Responsibility to Protect’, International Affairs, 87:4 (2011), pp. 825–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸⁸ Kelman, Gaston, ‘Côte d'Ivoire: le réveil de l'intellectuel africain est en jeu’, Jeune Afrique 2609 (9–15 January 2011)Google Scholar.

⁸⁹ For an overview of the debates between African intellectuals, see Christophe Champin, ‘Côte d'Ivoire: La crise ivoirienne divise les intellectuels’, Rfi (18 January 2011).

⁹⁰ ‘Côte d'Ivoire: un appel d'intellectuels contre les va-t-en guerre?’, Rue89, available at: {www.rue89.com/node/182705} accessed December 2010. See also Albert Bourgi, ‘Insupportable néocolonialisme français’, Le Monde (15 April 2011).

⁹¹ Tierno Monénembo, ‘L'ONU recolonise l'Afrique’, Le Monde (3 January 2011).

⁹² Calixte Beyala ‘Non, Gbagbo n'est pas seul!’, Jeune Afrique (4 January 2011).

⁹³ Collectif, ‘Laurent Gbagbo, chef ethnocentriste’, Le Monde (19 January 2011).

⁹⁴ Venance Konan, ‘Reconnaissons que l'Elysée rompt avec la Françafrique?’, Le Monde (15 April 2011). See the French perspective of Yves Gounin, ‘On est loin de l'interventionnisme à la George W. Bush’, Le Monde (15 April 2011).

⁹⁵ Mbeki, Thabo, ‘What the World Got Wrong in Côte d'Ivoire’, Foreign Policy (Washington, DC, 29 April 2011)Google Scholar; and the response from the Chief of Staff of the UN Secretary-general, Nambiar, Vijay, ‘Dear President Mbeki: The United Nations Helped Save the Ivory Coast’, Foreign Policy (Washington, DC, 17 August 2011)Google Scholar.

⁹⁶ In the public arguments, there are potentially interesting differences from the scholarly ‘international/local’ and ‘imperial/humanitarian’ dichotomies. For instance, the former seem to emphasise the deficiencies in specific actors, thus potentially exceeding the ‘international/local’ binary and a principled stance for one or the other. I thank the anonymous reviewer who pointed this out to me.

⁹⁷ Koné, Amadou, Houphouët-Boigny et la crise ivoirienne (Paris: Karthala, 2003)Google Scholar.

⁹⁸ Chauveau, Jean-Pierre and Dozon, Jean-Pierre, ‘Ethnies et État en Côte d'Ivoire’, Revue française de science politique, 38:5 (1988), p. 745CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹⁹ Amin, Samir, Le développement du capitalisme en Côte d'Ivoire (2nd edn, Paris: Minuit, 1973)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁰ Schwab, Peter, Designing West Africa: Prelude to 21st-century Calamity (New York: Palgrave, 2004), p. 54CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰¹ Akindès, Francis, ‘Racines des crises socio-politiques en Côte d'Ivoire et sens de l'histoire’, in Ouédraogo, J.-B. and Sall, E. (eds), Frontières de la citoyenneté et violence politique en Côte d'Ivoire (Dakar: CODESRIA, 2008), pp. 25–61Google Scholar.

¹⁰² Campbell, Bonnie, ‘Political Dimensions of the Adjustment Experience of Côte d'Ivoire’, in MacDonald, Eleanor (ed.), Critical Political Studies (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2002)Google Scholar.

¹⁰³ Bouquet, Christian, Géopolitique de la Côte d'Ivoire (Paris: Armand Colin, 2005)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁴ The presence of Martin Bouygues and Vincent Bolloré at Ouattara's 21 May 2011 presidential investiture was symbolically powerful and suggestive of the shared French-Ivoirian economic interests. See ‘Côte d'Ivoire: dans les coulisses de l'investiture d'Alassane Ouattara’, Jeune Afrique (1 June 2011).

¹⁰⁵ Philippe Bernard, ‘Gbagbo: retour sur investissement’, Le Monde (16 February 2011).

¹⁰⁶ ‘Cote d'Ivoire Minister of Economy and Finance to Receive “Finance Minister of the Year, Africa” From the Banker Magazine’, Marketwire (11 February 2010).

¹⁰⁷ Pascal Airault, ‘Côte d'Ivoire: “Nous sommes les premiers responsables”, admet Mamadou Koulibaly’, Jeune Afrique (14 June 2011).

¹⁰⁸ Abrahamsen, Rita, Disciplining Democracy: Development Discourse and Good Governance in Africa (London: Zed Books, 2000)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁹ In the first round of the presidential election, Gbagbo got 38.3 per cent of the vote and 45.9 per cent in the second round. For an analysis of the election, Bassett, Thomas, ‘Winning Coalition, Sore Loser: Côte d'Ivoire's 2010 Presidential Elections’, African Affairs, 110:440 (2011), pp. 469–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹⁰ McGovern, Mike, Making War in Côte d'Ivoire (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), pp. 103–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar. During my fieldwork in Côte d'Ivoire in November and December 2012, this claim was reaffirmed by FPI members and Gbagbo supporters during informal conversations and formal interviews.

¹¹¹ Straus, Scott, ‘“It's Sheer Horror Here”: Patterns of Violence during the First Four Months of Côte d'Ivoire's Post-electoral Crisis’, African Affairs, 110:440 (2011), pp. 481–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹² Simonen, Katariina, ‘Qui s'excuse s'accuse … An Analysis of French Justifications for Intervening in Côte d'Ivoire’, International Peacekeeping, 19:3 (2012), pp. 363–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹³ Vines, Alex, ‘Côte d'Ivoire: Power Gridlock’, The World Today, 67:3 (2011), p. 24Google Scholar.

¹¹⁴ For a detailed analysis, see Charbonneau, ‘War and Peace in Côte d'Ivoire’.

¹¹⁵ Charbonneau, Bruno, ‘Dreams of Empire: France, Europe, and the New Interventionism in Africa’, Modern & Contemporary France, 16:3 (2008), pp. 279–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹⁶ Piccolino, Giulia, ‘David against Goliath in Côte d'Ivoire? Laurent Gbagbo's War against Global Governance’, African Affairs, 111:442 (2011), pp. 1–23CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹⁷ Darracq, Vincent, ‘Jeux de puissance en Afrique: Le Nigeria et l'Afrique du Sud face à la crise ivoirienne’, Politique étrangère, 2:summer (2011), pp. 361–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹⁸ The difficult relationship between Chirac and Mbeki over Côte d'Ivoire was well covered by the press, notably Chirac's statement that Mbeki should ‘immerse himself in West Africa … in order to understand the psychology and soul of West Africa because, in times of crisis, one must know the psychology and soul of the people’. ‘Chirac en panne d'idée’, Jeune Afrique (6 February 2005).

¹¹⁹ International Crisis Group, Côte d'Ivoire: faut-il croire à l'accord de Ouagadougou? (Dakar/Brussels: Africa Report 127, 2007)Google Scholar.

¹²⁰ ‘UN chief warns of “real risk” of Ivory Coast civil war’, BBC News {www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12056444} accessed 23 December 2010.

¹²¹ Walker, After the Globe, Before the World, p. 230.

¹²² Berry, Sarah, ‘Property, Authority and Citizenship: Land Claims, Politics and the Dynamics of Social Division in West Africa’, Development and Change, 40:1 (2009), pp. 23–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Conte, Bernard, ‘La responsabilité du FMI et de la Banque mondiale dans le conflit en Côte d'Ivoire’, Études internationales, 36:2 (2005), pp. 219–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹²³ ‘Côte d'Ivoire: la France annonce une aide “exceptionnelle” de 400 millions d'euros’, Le Monde (12 April 2011); John Lichfield, ‘A Success for France's army, but a failure of its diplomacy’, The Independent (12 April 2011); Baudelaire Mieu, ‘Côte d'Ivoire: forcing des patrons français’, Jeune Afrique (18 July 2011); Kim Willsher, ‘Sarkozy's micro-managed intervention in Ivory Coast could win votes’, The Guardian (11 April 2011).

¹²⁴ Amnesty International, Côte d'Ivoire: la loi des vainqueurs (London: Amnesty International Publications, 2013)Google Scholar.

¹²⁵ Because of the lack of space, I cannot elaborate on the Ivoirian peacebuilding process since 2011. See Charbonneau, Bruno, ‘Côte d'Ivoire: les possibilités et limites d'une réconciliation’, Afrique Contemporaine, 245:1 (2013), pp. 111–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹²⁶ Giulia Piccolino, ‘David against Goliath in Côte d'Ivoire?’

¹²⁷ Charbonneau, ‘Côte d'Ivoire: les possibilités et limites d'une réconciliation’.