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¹⁴ Darby, ‘Pursuing the political’, p. 2.

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¹⁹ Bilgin, ‘Thinking past “Western” IR?’, p. 12; Comaroff and Comaroff, Theory from the South, p. 1.

²⁰ Cornelissen et al., ‘Introduction’, p. 12.

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³⁹ Ibid.

⁴⁰ Dean, Governmentality, p. 20.

⁴¹ Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics, p. 186.

⁴² Ibid.

⁴³ Ibid.

⁴⁴ Ibid.

⁴⁵ Ibid., pp. 189–90.

⁴⁶ Ibid, p. 191.

⁴⁷ Ibid.

⁴⁸ Nadesan, Governmentality, Biopower and Everyday Life.

⁴⁹ Ibid., pp. 7–8.

⁵⁰ Rosenow, Doerthe, ‘The merits of a Foucauldian approach to International Relations’, Global Society, 23:4 (2009), pp. 497–517CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁵⁴ Dean, Governmentality, p. 198.

⁵⁵ This differs from Dean's attempt to keep governmentality separate from ‘the exercise of sovereign and biopolitical powers of life and death’ (p. 91). He later notes the difficulty of this, recognising that ‘there are also key thresholds in which sovereignty, governmentality and biopolitics cease to exist as distinguishable categories’ (p. 94). Dean, Governing Societies.

⁵⁶ Dean, Governmentality, p. 23.

⁵⁷ Nadesan, Governmentality, Biopower and Everyday Life, p. 6.

⁵⁸ Dean, Governmentality, p. 28.

⁵⁹ For a book-length exposition of this framework in action, which seeks to answer some of these questions in the problem-area of sustainable development, see Death, Carl, Governing Sustainable Development: Partnerships, protests and power (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010)Google Scholar.

⁶⁰ Rose, Powers of Freedom, p. 27.

⁶¹ Barnett and Duvall, ‘Power’, pp. 55–7.

⁶² For example, Foucault describes civil society as ‘the correlate of a political technology of government’, in Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics, p. 296. See also Agrawal, Arun, Environmentality: Technologies of Government and the Making of Subjects (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005)Google Scholar; Bartelson, Jens, ‘Making sense of global civil society’, European Journal of International Relations, 12:3 (2006), pp. 371–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁶⁴ Dean, Governing Societies; Hindess, ‘Politics as Government’; Nadesan, Governmentality, Biopower and Everyday Life.

⁶⁵ Rose, Powers of freedom, p. 36.

⁶⁶ Ibid., p. 277.

⁶⁷ Harrison, Graham, Neoliberal Africa: The impact of global social engineering (London: Zed Books, 2010), p. 3Google Scholar; see also Nkiwane, ‘Africa and International Relations’, p. 284.

⁶⁸ An example of this is provided by Jonathan Joseph, who approvingly quotes Larner and Walters' assertion that ‘areas like sub-Saharan Africa are relatively bare spots on the map. The networks of capital and information associated with postindustrial progress are sparse and stretched in these zones.’ Joseph, ‘The limits of governmentality’, p. 236, citing Larner, Wendy and Walters, William, ‘The political rationality of “new regionalism”: Toward a genealogy of the region’, Theory and Society, 31 (2002), p. 421CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁹ Bayart, The State in Africa, p. xl.

⁷⁰ Ibid., pp. xxxviii–xl; in contrast, see p. 21, pp. 100–1. See also Cornelissen et al., ‘Introduction’.

⁷¹ Bayart, The State in Africa, p. xii.

⁷² Ibid., pp. xiii, xxiii, p. 208, pp. 250–3. On Bayart's differences with Foucault, see Ibid., pp. li and lxxxvii. Bayart's analysis could not be described as purely Foucauldian (whatever that might mean), and he does not spend much time discussing the literature on governmentality. Many of the categories he employs throughout his analysis are borrowed from Gramsci (chap. 7) and Deleuze and Guattari (pp. 220–1). Yet he concludes that that the concept of governmentality – in contrast to other concepts such as hegemony, historical bloc, and culture – ‘is more likely to avoid the trap of unwarranted totalisation’ (p. 271).

⁷³ Bayart, Jean-François, Global Subjects: A Political Critique of Globalisation, trans. Brown, Andrew (Cambridge: Polity, 2007), p. xiGoogle Scholar; Bayart, The State in Africa, pp. xiii and 267–8.

⁷⁴ Bayart, The State in Africa, pp. 271–2.

⁷⁵ See also Bayart, Jean-François, Ellis, S. D. K., and Hibou, Béatrice, The Criminalisation of the State in Africa (Oxford: James Currey, 1999)Google Scholar; de Sardan, J. P. Olivier, ‘A Moral Economy of Corruption in Africa?’, Journal of Modern African Studies, 37:1 (1999), pp. 25–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁷⁷ Bayart, The State in Africa, p. xxii; see also Mbembe, Achille, On the Postcolony (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001)Google Scholar.

⁷⁸ Bayart, The State in Africa, chap. 6.

⁷⁹ Mbembe, On the Postcolony, pp. 102–3.

⁸⁰ Ferguson, James, Global Shadows: Africa in the Neoliberal World Order (London: Duke University Press 2007), pp. 15–17Google Scholar; Nordstrom, Carolyn, ‘Out of the shadows’, in Callaghy, Thomas M., Kassimir, Ronald, and Latham, Robert (eds), Intervention and Transnationalism in Africa: Global-Local Networks of Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001)Google Scholar.

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⁸² Joseph, ‘Governmentality of what?’; Joseph, ‘Poverty reduction’; Joseph, ‘The limits of governmentality’; Joseph, ‘What can governmentality do for IR?’; Selby, ‘Engaging Foucault’.

⁸³ Joseph, ‘The limits of governmentality’, p. 224; see also Selby, ‘Engaging Foucault’, p. 326.

⁸⁴ Selby, ‘Engaging Foucault’, p. 337.

⁸⁵ Joseph, ‘The limits of governmentality’, p. 242.

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⁸⁹ Abrahamsen, ‘The power of partnerships’, p. 1454.

⁹⁰ Fraser, Alastair and Whitfield, Lindsay, ‘Understanding Contemporary Aid Relationships’, in Whitfield, Lindsay (ed.), The Politics of Aid: African Strategies for Dealing with Donors (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 78–80Google Scholar.

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⁹² Assey, Paschal, Bass, Stephen, Cheche, Blandina, Howlett, David, Jambiya, George, Kikula, Idris, Likwelile, Servacius, Manyama, Amon, Mugurusi, Eric, Muheto, Ruzika, and Rutasitara, Longinus, Environment at the heart of Tanzania's Development: Lessons from Tanzania National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (MKUKUTA) (London: International Institute for Environment and Development, 2007), p. ivGoogle Scholar.

⁹³ Dalal-Clayton, Barry and Bass, Steve, The Challenges of Environmental Mainstreaming: Experience of integrating environment into development institutions and decisions (London: IIED, 2009)Google Scholar; Geoghegan, Tighe, Making aid work better for recipients, and improving national planning processes for sustainable development in the bargain (London: IIED, 2007)Google Scholar.

⁹⁴ Fraser and Whitfield, ‘Understanding Contemporary Aid Relationships’, pp. 80–1.

⁹⁵ Abrahamsen, ‘The power of partnerships’, p. 1454.

⁹⁶ Joseph, ‘Governmentality of what?’ pp. 425–7.

⁹⁷ See Whitfield, The Politics of Aid.

⁹⁸ Abrahamsen, ‘The power of partnerships’, p. 1454.

⁹⁹ Harrison, The World Bank and Africa. See also Engel and Olsen, ‘Authority, sovereignty and Africa’.

¹⁰⁰ Abrahamsen, ‘The power of partnerships’, p. 1459; Harrison, The World Bank and Africa, chaps 4 and 5; Löwenheim, ‘Examining the state’; Tosa, ‘Anarchical governance’, pp. 418–20.

¹⁰¹ For example, see Assey et al., Environment at the heart of Tanzania's Development; Dalal-Clayton and Bass, The Challenges of Environmental Mainstreaming.

¹⁰² Harrison, The World Bank and Africa, p. 90.

¹⁰³ For example, see Nord, Roger, Sobolev, Yuri, Dunn, David, Hajdenberg, Alejandro, Hobdari, Niko, Maziad, Samar, and Roudet, Stéphane, Tanzania: The Story of an African Transition (Washington DC: IMF, 2009)Google Scholar.

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¹⁰⁵ Harrison, Neoliberal Africa, p. 99.

¹⁰⁶ Miller and Rose, Governing the Present, p. 218.

¹⁰⁷ Selby, ‘Engaging Foucault’, p. 336.

¹⁰⁸ Neumann and Sending, Governing the Global Polity.

¹⁰⁹ Joseph, ‘The limits of governmentality’, pp. 238–9.

¹¹⁰ Joseph, ‘Governmentality of what?’ p. 427.

¹¹¹ Ferguson, James, The Anti-Politics Machine: ‘Development’, Depoliticization and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho (Minneapolis: Minnesota Press, 1994)Google Scholar; Joseph, ‘Poverty reduction’; Neumann and Sending, Governing the Global Polity, pp. 141–5.

¹¹² Fougner, ‘Neoliberal’.

¹¹³ Jaeger, ‘UN reform’; Zanotti, ‘Governmentalizing’.

¹¹⁴ Abrahamsen, ‘The power of partnerships’.

¹¹⁵ Duffield, Mark, ‘Governing the Borderlands: Decoding the Power of Aid’, Disasters, 25:4 (2001), pp. 308–20CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Sending, Ole Jacob and Neumann, Iver B., ‘Governance to Governmentality: Analysing NGOs, States and Power’, International Studies Quarterly, 50:3 (2006), pp. 651–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹¹⁷ Miller and Rose, Governing the Present, p. 71.

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¹¹⁹ Ferguson, The Anti-Politics Machine, p. 20.

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¹²¹ Abrahamsen and Williams, Security beyond the state, pp. 220–21; Chatterjee, The Politics of the Governed; Dean, Governing Societies; Dean, ‘Liberal government’; Hindess, ‘Politics as Government’, pp. 402–3; Nadesan, Governmentality, Biopower and Everyday Life.

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¹²⁴ Joseph, ‘The limits of governmentality’, p. 236.

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¹³¹ Chatterjee, The Politics of the Governed, pp. 7 and 36.

¹³² Abrahamsen and Williams, Security beyond the state, pp. 148–70; Denney, Lisa, ‘Reducing poverty with teargas and batons: The security-development nexus in Sierra Leone’, African Affairs, 110:439 (2011), pp. 275–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hoffman, ‘The Civilian Target in Sierra Leone and Liberia’; Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest.

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¹³⁷ Jackson, ‘The State Didn't Even Exist’.

¹³⁸ Ferguson, Global Shadows.

¹³⁹ Abrahamsen and Williams, Security beyond the state.

¹⁴⁰ Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest, pp. 30–1.

¹⁴¹ Joseph, ‘The limits of governmentality’, p. 242.

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¹⁴³ Abrahamsen, Disciplining Democracy; Bayart, The State in Africa; Ferguson, Global Shadows.

¹⁴⁴ Harrison, Neoliberal Africa, p. 143.

¹⁴⁵ Barnett and Duvall, ‘Power in International Politics’.

¹⁴⁶ Engel and Olsen, ‘Authority, sovereignty and Africa’, p. 63.

¹⁴⁷ As such this article echoes the conclusions of Brown and Lemke in this journal regarding the applicability of many insights derived from politics in Africa for the study of politics elsewhere. Brown, ‘Africa and International Relations’; Lemke, ‘Intra-national IR in Africa’. See also Comaroff and Comaroff, Theory from the South, p. 7; Cornelissen et al., ‘Introduction’, pp. 12–13; Harrison, Neoliberal Africa, p. 116.

¹⁴⁸ Abrahamsen and Williams, Security beyond the state, pp. 218–19. See also Rosenow, ‘The merits of a Foucauldian approach’, p. 500.

¹⁴⁹ Bayart, The State in Africa, p. 268. See also Comaroff and Comaroff, Theory from the South.

¹⁵⁰ Nadesan, Governmentality, Biopower and Everyday Life, p. 6.

¹⁵¹ Dean, Governing Societies, p. 103.

¹⁵² Comaroff and Comaroff, Theory from the South, p. 48.

¹⁵³ Ahluwalia, Out of Africa, p. 6.

¹⁵⁴ Dean, Governing Societies, p. 83. Similar arguments are advanced by Joseph, ‘The limits of governmentality’, p. 224; Tosa, ‘Anarchical governance’, p. 417.

¹⁵⁵ Mbembe, On the Postcolony; Miller and Rose, Governing the Present.

¹⁵⁶ David Chandler's discussion and critique of governmentality-inspired analyses of development partnerships relies on questioning the motivation of donor institutions. This is a subject on which an analytics of government approach is not particularly well-suited to conducting research. Chandler, Empire in denial, pp. 15–18.

¹⁵⁷ Dean, Governing Societies, pp. 50–1.

¹⁵⁸ Foucault, Michel, ‘On the Genealogy of Ethics: An Overview of Work in Progress’, in Rabinow, P. (ed.), Ethics, Subjectivity and Truth: Essential Works of Foucault 1954–1984, Vol. 1, trans. Hurley, R.et al., (New York: The New Press 1997), p. 256Google Scholar. See also Abrahamsen, ‘African Studies and the Postcolonial Challenge’, p. 210.

¹⁵⁹ Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics, p. 313.

¹⁶⁰ Ibid.

¹⁶¹ Rose, Powers of Freedom, p. 60.