¹ Dawkins, William Boyd, “Our Earliest Ancestors in Britain,” in Science Lectures for the People (Manchester, 1879), 95–106, 105–6Google Scholar.

² See particularly Hall, Catherine, Civilising Subjects: Metropole and Colony in the English Imagination (Chicago, 2002), 9Google Scholar. The literature on racial thought is vast but has been particularly prominently discussed in Lorimer, Douglas, Colour, Class, and the Victorians: English Attitudes to the Negro in the Mid-Nineteenth Century (Leicester, 1978)Google Scholar; Rich, Paul, Race and Empire in British Politics (Cambridge, 1986)Google Scholar; and Stepan, Nancy, The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain, 1800–1960 (Hamden, CT, 1982)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³ Curtis, L. P., Anglo-Saxons and Celts: A Study of Anti-Irish Prejudice in Victorian England (New York, 1968)Google Scholar; and MacDougall, Hugh, Racial Myth in English History: Trojans, Teutons, and Anglo-Saxons (Hanover, NH, 1982)Google Scholar; for later uses, see Rich, Race and Empire, 13–15; and Pittock, Murray, Celtic Identity and the British Image (Manchester, 1999)Google Scholar.

⁴ Mandler, Peter, “‘Race’ and ‘Nation’ in Mid-Victorian Thought,” in History, Religion, and Culture: British Intellectual History, 1750–1950, ed. Collini, Stefan, Whatmore, Richard, and Young, Brian (Cambridge, 2000), 224–44, 229CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and extended in The English National Character: The History of an Idea from Edmund Burke to Tony Blair (New Haven, CT, 2006), 59–105Google Scholar.

⁵ Foster, Roy, Paddy and Mr. Punch: Connections in Irish and English History (London, 1993)Google Scholar; and Gilley, Sheridan, “English Attitudes to the Irish in England, 1789–1900,” in Immigrants and Minorities in British Society, ed. Holmes, Colin (London, 1993), 81–110Google Scholar. De Nie, Michael, The Eternal Paddy: Irish Identity and the British Press, 1798–1882 (Madison, WI, 2004)Google Scholar offers a nuanced counterargument examining cultural, social, and political justifications of hierarchy, as well as racial ones.

⁶ Colin Holmes, “Introduction: Immigrants and Minorities in Britain,” in Immigrants and Minorities, 13–22, esp. 13.

⁷ Hingley, Richard, Roman Officers and English Gentlemen: The Imperial Origins of Roman Archaeology (London, 2000), 3Google Scholar.

⁸ Searle, G. R., A New England? Peace and War, 1886–1918 (Oxford, 2004), 12Google Scholar.

⁹ Kidd, Colin, “Teutonist Ethnology and Scottish Nationalist Inhibition, 1780–1880,” Scottish Historical Review 74, no. 197 (April 1995): 45–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰ This has been primarily studied for earlier periods. See O’Halloran, Clare, Golden Ages and Barbarous Nations: Antiquarian Debate and Cultural Politics in Ireland, c. 1750–1800 (Cork, 2004)Google Scholar; and Kidd, Colin, British Identities before Nationalism: Ethnicity and Nationhood in the Atlantic World, 1600–1800 (Cambridge, 1999), 151–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹ Goode, Joshua, Impurity of Blood: Defining Race in Spain, 1870–1930 (Baton Rouge, LA, 2009)Google Scholar makes a forceful case for the importance of ideas of multiracial blend in Spanish contexts, if possibly overstating its uniqueness. Meanwhile, Dubow, Saul, Scientific Racism in Modern South Africa (Cambridge, 1995)Google Scholar, has highlighted mixture as a running theme in South African racial discourse, as applied to both Bantu and Afrikaner populations, and I myself have examined these issues in French and German anthropological debates in Manias, Chris, “The race prussienne Controversy: Scientific Internationalism and the Nation,” Isis 100, no. 4 (December 2009): 733–57CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

¹² Bell, Duncan, The Idea of Greater Britain: Empire and the Future of World Order, 1860–1900 (Princeton, NJ, 2007), 115Google Scholar.

¹³ See especially the essays in Race, Nation and Empire: Making Histories, 1750 to the Present, ed. Hall, Catherine and McClelland, Keith (Manchester, 2010)Google Scholar; Koditschek, Theodore, Liberalism, Imperialism and the Historical Imagination: Nineteenth-Century Visions of a Greater Britain (Cambridge, 2011)Google Scholar; Readman, Paul, “The Place of the Past in English Culture c. 1890–1914,” Past and Present 186, no. 1 (February 2005): 147–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stuchtey, Benedikt, “Literature, Liberty, and Life of the Nation: British Historiography from Macaulay to Trevelyan,” in Writing National Histories: Western Europe since 1800, ed. Berger, Stefan, Donovan, Mark, and Passmore, Kevin (London, 1999), 30–46Google Scholar; and Burrow, John, A Liberal Descent: Victorian Historians and the English Past (Cambridge, 1981)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁴ Trautmann, Thomas, Aryans and British India (Berkeley, CA, 1997), 192–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁵ In particular, see Secord, James, Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (Chicago, 2000)Google Scholar; Rudwick, Martin, Worlds before Adam: The Reconstruction of Geohistory in the Age of Reform (Chicago, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and O’Connor, Ralph, The Earth on Show: Fossils and the Poetics of Popular Science, 1802–1856 (Chicago, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. There is also a sophisticated literature on the scientific dynamics behind the establishment of human antiquity: see Grayson, Donald, The Establishment of Human Antiquity (New York, 1983)Google Scholar; Riper, A. Bowdoin Van, Men among the Mammoths: Victorian Science and the Discovery of Human Prehistory (Chicago, 1993)Google Scholar; and O’Connor, Anne, Finding Time for the Old Stone Age: A History of Paleolithic Archaeology and Quaternary Geology in Britain, 1860–1960 (Oxford, 2007)Google Scholar. The byways of Victorian anthropological science have been discussed thoroughly in Stocking, George, Victorian Anthropology (New York, 1987)Google Scholar.

¹⁶ For example, Koditschek, Liberalism, Imperialism and the Historical Imagination, 210–62, examines the interaction of human antiquity on more formal forms of history writing and imperial discourse; and Bennett, Tony, Pasts beyond Memory: Evolution, Museums, Colonialism (London, 2004)Google Scholar, discusses “layered” social evolutionism in museum organization.

¹⁷ Collini, Stefan, Public Moralists: Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850–1930 (Oxford, 1991), 97–98Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Champion, Timothy, “Three Nations of One? Britain and the National Use of the Past,” in Nationalism and Archaeology in Europe, ed. Díaz-Andreu, Margarita and Champion, Timothy (London, 1996), 119–45, 119Google Scholar.

¹⁹ Dawkins, William Boyd, Early Man in Britain and His Place in the Tertiary Period (London, 1880), 497Google Scholar.

²⁰ Church, Alfred and Brodribb, William, The Agricola and Germany of Tacitus (London, 1868), 10Google Scholar.

²¹ See Olender, Maurice, The Languages of Paradise: Race, Religion, and Philology in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, MA, 1992)Google Scholar; and Poliakov, Léon, Le mythe Aryen: Essai sur les sources du racisme et des nationalismes (Paris, 1971)Google Scholar.

²² Prichard, James Cowles, The Natural History of Man; comprising inquiries into the modifying influence of physical and moral agencies on the different tribes of the human family, 2 vols. (London, 1855), 1:186–87Google Scholar; and Latham, Robert Gordon, The Ethnology of the British Islands (London, 1852), 26–27Google Scholar.

²³ Wilson, Daniel, The Archaeology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1851), 161–65Google Scholar.

²⁴ Davis, Joseph Barnard and Thurnam, John, Crania Britannica: Delineations and Descriptions of the Skulls of the Early Inhabitants of the British Islands, 2 vols. (London, 1855–56), 1:52–59Google Scholar. Thurnam is also discussed in Rowley-Conwy, Peter, From Genesis to Prehistory: The Archaeological Three Age System and Its Contested Reception in Denmark, Britain, and Ireland (Oxford, 2007), 124–26 and 252–57Google Scholar.

²⁵ These excavations and later “building of a consensus” are thoroughly discussed in Van Riper, Men among the Mammoths, 74–143.

²⁶ Grayson, Human Antiquity, 188–90.

²⁷ See, e.g., Díaz-Andreu, Margarita, A World History of Nineteenth-Century Archaeology: Nationalism, Colonialism, and the Past (Oxford, 2007)Google Scholar.

²⁸ Discussed in Rowley-Conwy, From Genesis to Prehistory.

²⁹ Lubbock, John, Pre-Historic Times, as Illustrated by Ancient Remains, and the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages (London, 1865), 2Google Scholar.

³⁰ The method’s uses and development are discussed in Stocking, Victorian Anthropology, 15–16; and Leopold, Joan, Culture in Comparative and Evolutionary Perspective: E. B. Tylor and the Making of Primitive Culture (Berlin, 1980), 58–59Google Scholar.

³¹ Tylor, Edward Burnett, Congrès international d’anthropologie et d’archéologie préhistoriques: Transactions of the Third Session, which opened at Norwich on the 20th August and closed in London on the 28th August 1868 (London, 1869), 12Google Scholar.

³² Davis and Thurnam, Crania Britannica, 2–3.

³³ Beddoe, John, Memories of Eighty Years (London, 1910), 204Google Scholar.

³⁴ Broca, Paul, “Sur les caractères du crâne des Basques,” Bulletins de la société d’anthropologie de Paris, series 1, no. 3 (1862): 579–91Google Scholar.

³⁵ Thurnam, John, “On Ancient British Barrows, especially those of Wiltshire and the adjoining Counties (Part I.—Long-barrows),” Archaeologia 42 (1869): 161–244, quotation at 229CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁶ Ibid., 198.

³⁷ Thurnam, John, “Further Researches and Observations on the Two Principal Forms of Ancient British Skulls,” Memoirs Read Before the Anthropological Society of London 3 (1870): 41–80, quotation at 59Google Scholar.

³⁸ Thurnam, John, “On Ancient British Barrows, especially those of Wiltshire and the adjoining Counties (Part II.—Round-barrows),” Archaeologia 43 (1871): 285–552, esp. 543CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁹ Thurnam, “Ancient British Skulls,” 77.

⁴⁰ Pitt-Rivers, Augustus Lane-Fox, The Evolution of Culture and other Essays (Oxford, 1906), 162Google Scholar.

⁴¹ Thurnam, John, “On the Two Principal Forms of Ancient British and Gaulish Skulls,” Memoirs Read Before the Anthropological Society of London 1 (1865): 120–68, quotation at 160–61Google Scholar.

⁴² The existing biographies have focused on his paleontological and geological work: Jackson, J. Wilfred, “Sir William Boyd Dawkins (1837–1929),” in The Cave Hunters: Biographical Sketches of the Lives of Sir William Boyd Dawkins and Dr. J. Wilfred Jackson, ed. Bishop, M. J. (Buxton, 1982), 4–22Google Scholar; and Tweedale, Geoffroy, “Geology and Industrial Consultancy: Sir William Boyd Dawkins (1837–1929) and the Kent Coalfield,” British Journal for the History of Science 24, no. 4 (1991): 435–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar. O’Connor, Finding Time, discusses Dawkins’s connections within the scientific community, 36–43, 65–68, and 111–15; and Van Riper, Men among the Mammoths, mentions him on 192–93, 198–99, and 219–20.

⁴³ Tweedale, “Industrial Consultancy,” 436; and Jackson, “Boyd Dawkins,” 6.

⁴⁴ Jackson, “Boyd Dawkins,” 18–22.

⁴⁵ Dawkins, Early Man, 3.

⁴⁶ Ibid., 172–73.

⁴⁷ Ibid., 244.

⁴⁸ Ibid., 240.

⁴⁹ Ibid., 243.

⁵⁰ Brantlinger, Patrick, Dark Vanishings: Discourse on the Extinction of Primitive Races, 1800–1930 (Ithaca, NY, 2003)Google Scholar.

⁵¹ Dawkins, “Our Earliest Ancestors,” 100.

⁵² Dawkins, Early Man, 283.

⁵³ Ibid., 315.

⁵⁴ Dawkins, , Cave Hunting: Researches on the Evidence of Caves Respecting the Early Inhabitants of Europe (1874; repr., East Ardsley, 1973), 225Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ Beddoe, John, The Races of Britain: A Contribution to the Anthropology of Western Europe (Bristol, 1885), 26Google Scholar.

⁵⁶ MacLean, Hector, “The Scottish Highland Language and People,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 7 (1878): 65–81, quotations at 76–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁷ Dawkins, “Earliest Ancestors,” 101–2.

⁵⁸ This is broadly the line in Koditschek, Liberalism, Imperialism and the Historical Imagination, in his brief characterization of Dawkins, 242.

⁵⁹ Dawkins, Early Man, 307.

⁶⁰ Ibid., 103–4.

⁶¹ Ibid., 105–6.

⁶² Ibid., 101–2.

⁶³ Ibid., 343.

⁶⁴ Dawkins, , The Place of the Welsh in the History of Britain (London, 1889), 22Google Scholar.

⁶⁵ Factors identified in Inden, Ronald, Imagining India (Oxford, 1990), 54–66Google Scholar; and Trautmann, Aryans and British India, 198–204. A range of attempts to relate “evolutionary” timescales of development to Indian society have been discussed in Theodore Koditschek, “Narrative Time and Racial/Evolutionary Time in Nineteenth-Century British Liberal Imperial Historiography,” in Hall and McClelland, Race, Nation and Empire, 36–55.

⁶⁶ Dawkins, “Earliest Ancestors,” 97.

⁶⁷ Hingley, Roman Officers, 28–37 and 65–71; and Majeed, Javeed, “Comparativism and References to Rome in British Imperial Attitudes to India,” in Roman Presences: Receptions of Rome in European Culture, 1789–1945, ed. Edwards, Catherine (Cambridge, 1999), 88–110Google Scholar.

⁶⁸ Brundage, Anthony, The People’s Historian: John Richard Green and the Writing of History in Victorian England (Westport, CT, 1994)Google Scholar. He is contextualized alongside Freeman and Stubbs in Burrow, Liberal Descent, 155–228.

⁶⁹ Dawkins, “Earliest Ancestors,” 96.

⁷⁰ Dawkins, William Boyd, “The English Conquest of Britain,” Transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society 1 (1883): 105–6, quotation at 106Google Scholar. These views were possibly more widespread than Dawkins suggests: Mandler, “Race and Nation,” 240, quotes Freeman stating that Normans and Hugenots had likewise become “as English” as those “whose forefathers landed with Hengest.”

⁷¹ Dawkins, Place of the Welsh, 5–6.

⁷² Ibid., 14–15.

⁷³ Gilley, “Attitudes to the Irish,” 96.

⁷⁴ De Nie, Eternal Paddy, 265.

⁷⁵ Webster, Wentworth, “On Certain Points Concerning the Origin and Relations of the Basque Race,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 2 (1873): 150–59, quotation at 150CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁶ Webster, Wentworth, “The Basque and the Kelt,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 5 (1876): 18CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁷ Greenwell, William, British Barrows: A Record of the Examination of Sepulchral Mounds in Various Parts of England (Oxford, 1877), 630Google Scholar.

⁷⁸ Ibid., 126.

⁷⁹ Ibid., 123.

⁸⁰ For example, Buckley, Arabella, History of England for Beginners (London, 1902), 4–6Google Scholar; Samuel Gardiner, A Student’s History of England, from the Earliest Times to 1885 (1892), 1–6; Terry, Benjamin, A History of England from the Earliest Times to the Death of Queen Victoria (Chicago, 1901), 2–4Google Scholar; and Hodgkin, Thomas, The History of England from the Earliest Time to the Norman Conquest (London, 1906), 1–5Google Scholar. In the postwar period, the same notions and analyses also featured in Wells, Herbert George, “Neolithic Man in Europe,” in The Outline of History: Being a Plain History of Life and Mankind (London, 1920), 52–60Google Scholar.

⁸¹ Manchester Times, 11 December 1880.

⁸² Allen, Grant, “Who were the Fairies?” Cornhill Magazine 43 (March 1881): 335–48, quotation at 336Google Scholar.

⁸³ Ibid., 248.

⁸⁴ Gomme, George Laurence, Ethnology in Folklore (London, 1892), 192Google Scholar.

⁸⁵ Discussed in Driver, Felix, Geography Militant: Cultures of Exploration and Empire (Oxford, 2001), 170–98Google Scholar.

⁸⁶ Beddoe, Races of Britain, 247.

⁸⁷ Campbell, J. W., “Kimmerians and Atlanteans,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 1 (1872): clviii–clixGoogle Scholar.

⁸⁸ Lewis, A. L., “Kimmerians and Atlanteans,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 1 (1872): 264Google Scholar.

⁸⁹ MacLean, Hector, “On the Kimmerian and Atlantean Races,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 1 (1872): xl–lxi, quotation at xlixCrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹⁰ Hutchinson, Horace, Life of Sir John Lubbock, Lord Avebury, 2 vols. (London, 1914) 1:1–2Google Scholar.

⁹¹ Ripley, William Zebina, The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study (London, 1900), 324Google Scholar.

⁹² Translated into English as The Mediterranean Race: A Study of the Origin of European Peoples (London, 1901)Google Scholar. Dubow, Scientific Racism, 82–95, also discusses the importance of this “type” when identified as “Hamites” in conceptions of African racial composition.