Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-r7xzm Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-28T13:56:48.678Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Acoustic correlates of rhythm in New Zealand English: A diachronic study

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 March 2012

Jacqui Nokes
Affiliation:
University of Canterbury
Jennifer Hay
Affiliation:
University of Canterbury

Abstract

This paper reports on a large-scale diachronic investigation into the timing of New Zealand English (NZE), which points to changes in its rhythmic structure. The Pairwise Variability Index (PVI) was used to measure the mean variation in duration, intensity, and pitch of successive vowels in the speech of over 500 New Zealanders, born between 1851 and 1988. Normalized vocalic PVIs for duration have reduced over time, after allowing for changes in speech rate, supporting existing findings that stressed and unstressed vowels are less differentiated by duration in modern NZE than in other varieties of English. Rhythmically, syllable duration may be playing a reduced role in signalling prominence in NZE. This is supported by the finding that there have been contemporaneous changes in pitch and intensity variation. We discuss external and internal influences on the timing of NZE, including contact with Māori, the emergence of Māori English, and diachronic vowel shift.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abercrombie, D. (1967). Elements of general phonetics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, H. (1993). Rhythm in New Zealand English. Unpublished manuscript. Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand.Google Scholar
Arvaniti, A. (2009). Rhythm, Timing and the Timing of Rhythm. Phonetica 66:4663.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baayen, R. H., Piepenbrock, R., & Gulikers, L. (1996). CELEX2. Philadelphia: Linguistic Data Consortium.Google Scholar
Ballard, K. J., Robin, D. A., McCabe, P., & McDonald, J. (2010). A Treatment for Dysprosody in Childhood Apraxia of Speech. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 53:12271245.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bauer, W. (1993). Maori. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Bauer, W. (1997). The Reed reference grammar of Māori. Auckland: Reed.Google Scholar
Beckman, M. E. (1992). Evidence for speech rhythms across languages. In Tohkura, Y., Vatikiotis-Bateson, E., & Sagisaka, Y. (eds.), Speech perception, production and linguistic structure. Tokyo: Ohmsha.Google Scholar
Boersma, P., & Weenink, D. (2010). Praat: doing phonetics by computer. [Computer program]. Version 5.1.31, retrieved April 4, 2010 http://www.praat.org.Google Scholar
Brys, G., Hubert, M., & Struyf, A. (2004). A robust measure of skewness. Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics 13:9961017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buekers, R., & Kingma, H. (1997). Impact of phonation intensity upon pitch during speaking: A quantitative study in normal subjects. Logopedics Phoniatrics Vocology 22(2):7177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chambers, J. K. (2004). Patterns of variation including change. In Chambers, J. K., Trudgill, P., & Schilling-Estes, N. (eds.) The handbook of language variation and change. Oxford:Blackwell. 349372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Classe, A. (1939). The Rhythm of English prose. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Cutler, A. (1991). Linguistic rhythm and speech segmentation. In Sundberg, J., Nord, L., & Carlson, R. (eds.) Music, language, speech and brain. Basingstoke: MacMillan Press. 157166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dauer, R. M. (1983). Stress-timing and syllable-timing reanalyzed. Journal of Phonetics 11:5162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fant, G. (2004). Speech acoustics and phonetics: Selected writings. Dordrecht: Kluwer.Google Scholar
Fant, G., Kruckenberg, A., & Nord, L. (1991). Acoustic correlates of rhythmical structures in text reading. Journal of Phonetics 19:351365.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fenk, A., & Fenk-Oczlon, G. (2006). Crosslinguistic Computation and a rhythm-based classification of languages. In Spiliopoulou, M., Kruse, R., Borgelt, C., Nürnberger, A., & Gaul, W. (eds.) From data and information analysis to knowledge engineering. Berlin: Springer.Google Scholar
Fletcher, J. (1991). Rhythm and final lengthening in French. Journal of Phonetics 19:193212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fromont, R., & Hay, J. (2008). ONZE Miner: The development of a browser-based research tool. Corpora 3:173193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, E., Maclagan, M., & Hay, J. (2007). The ONZE Corpus. In Beal, J. C., Corrigan, K. P., & Moisl, H. (eds.) Models and methods in the handling of unconventional digital corpora: Volume 2 diachronic corpora. Hampshire: Palgrave.Google Scholar
Grabe, E., & Low, E. L. (2002). Durational variability in speech and the rhythm class hypothesis. In Gussenhoven, C. & Warner, N. (eds.), Laboratory phonology 7. Ossining, NY: Mouton de Gruyter. 515546.Google Scholar
Gramming, P., Sundberg, J., Ternström, S., Leanderson, R., & Perkins, W. H. (1988). Relationship between changes in voice pitch and loudness. Journal of Voice 2:118126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Han, M. S. (1964). Duration of Korean vowels. Studies in the Phonology of Asian Languages II. Los Angeles: University of Southern California.Google Scholar
Harlow, R., Keegan, P., King, J., Maclagan, M., & Watson, C. (2009). The changing sound of the Māori language. In Stanford, J. N. & Preston, D. R. (eds.) Quantitative Sociolinguistic studies of indigenous minority languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 129152.Google Scholar
Hay, J., Maclagan, M., & Gordon, E. (2008). New Zealand English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Holmes, J. (2005). Using Māori English in New Zealand. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 172:91115.Google Scholar
Holmes, J., & Ainsworth, H. (1996). Syllable-timing and Māori English. Te Reo 39:7584.Google Scholar
Holmes, J., & Ainsworth, H. (1997). Unpacking the research process: Investigating syllable-timing in New Zealand English. Language Awareness 6:3247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holmes, K., Murachver, T., & Bayard, D. (2001). Accent, appearance, and ethnic stereotypes in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Psychology 30(2):7986.Google Scholar
Jacewicz, E., Fox, R.A., O'Neill, C., & Salmons, J. (2009). Articulation rate across dialect, age, and gender. Language Variation and Change 21(2):233256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jessen, M., Köster, O., & Gfroerer, S. (2005). Influence of vocal effort on average and variability of fundamental frequency. International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law 12:174213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, J. (1995). Māori English as a solidarity marker for te reo Māori. New Zealand Studies in Applied Linguistics 1:5159.Google Scholar
King, J. (1999). Talking bro: Māori English in the university setting. Te Reo 42:1938.Google Scholar
King, J., Harlow, R., Watson, C., Keegan, P., & Maclagan, M. (2009). Changing pronunciation of the Māori Language: Implications for revitalization. In Reyhner, J. & Lockard, L. (eds.) Indigenous Language revitalization: Encouragement, guidance & lessons learned. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University. 8596.Google Scholar
Kohler, K. J. (2009a). Whither speech rhythm research? Phonetica 66:514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kohler, K. J.. (2009b). Rhythm in speech and language. Phonetica 66:2945.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kohler, K. J.. (2009c). Rhythm in speech and language. [Online supplementary Powerpoint presentation.] Retrieved November 24, 2009 from www.karger.com/pho.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krull, D., & Engstrand, O. (2003). Speech rhythm – intention or consequence? Cross-language obervations on the hyper/hypo dimension. Phonum 9:133136. Retrieved May 25, 2011 http://www.ling.umu.se/fonetik2003/.Google Scholar
Labov, W. (2001). Principles of linguistic change: Social factors. Boston, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Ladefoged, P. (1975). A course in phonetics. New York: Harcourt Brace & Jovanovich.Google Scholar
Langstrof, C.. (2006). Acoustic evidence for a push-chain shift in the intermediate period of New Zealand English. Language Variation and Change 18:141164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Langstrof, C. (2009). On the role of vowel duration in the New Zealand English front vowel shift. Language Variation and Change 21:437453.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lehiste, I. (1980). Phonetic manifestation of syntactic structure in English. Annual Bulletin of the Institute of Logopaedics and Phoniatrics. Tokyo: University of Tokyo. 127.Google Scholar
Low, E. L. (1998). Prosodic prominence in Singaporean English. Doctoral dissertation, University of Cambridge.Google Scholar
Low, E. L., Grabe, E., & Nolan, F. (2000). Quantitative characterisations of speech rhythm: Syllable-timing in Singapore English. Language and Speech 43:377401.Google Scholar
Maclagan, M., Gordon, E., & Lewis, G. (1999). Women and sound change: Conservative and innovative behaviour by the same speakers. Language Variation and Change 11:1941.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maclagan, M., & Hay, J. (2007). Getting fed up with our feet: Contrast maintenance and the New Zealand English ‘short’ front vowel shift. Language Variation and Change 19:125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maclagan, M., King, J., & Gillon, G. (2008). Māori English. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics 22:658670.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maclagan, M., Watson, C., King, J., Harlow, R., Thompson, L., & Keegan, P. (2009). Investigating Changes in the rhythm of Māori over time. Brighton, UK: 10th Annual Conference of the International Speech Communication Association, 6-10 Sep 2009. Interspeech 2009. 15311534.Google Scholar
McLintock, A. (1966). Geographical distribution of population – An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Reproduced in Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved December 2, 2010. http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/1966/population/5.Google Scholar
Mehler, J., Christophe, A., & Ramus, F. (2000). How infants acquire language: some preliminary observations. In Marantz, A., Miyashita, Y. & O'Neil, W. (eds.) Image, language, brain: Papers from the First Mind Articulation Project Symposium. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Meyerhoff, M. (1994). Sounds Pretty Ethnic, eh?: A Pragmatic Particle in New Zealand English. Language in Society 23:367388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ministry of Education, New Zealand Government. (2010). Biculturalism in Te Whāriki. ECE Educate. Retrieved December 12, 2010. http://www.educate.ece.govt.nz/learning/exploringPractice/BiculturalPractice/BiculturalismTeWhariki.aspx.Google Scholar
Ministry of Social Development, New Zealand Government. (2010) The Social Report 2010. Retrieved November 29, 2010. http://www.socialreport.msd.govt.nz/cultural-identity/maori-language-speakers.html.Google Scholar
Nolan, F., & Asu, E. L. (2009) The Pairwise Variability Index and coexisting rhythms in language. Phonetica 66:6477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Brien, Robert M. (2007). A caution regarding rules of thumb for variance inflation factors. Quality & Quantity 41:673690.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pike, K. (1946). The Intonation of American English. 2nd ed.Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
R Development Core Team. (2009). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing http://www.R-project.org.Google Scholar
Ramig, L. A. (1983). Effects of physiological ageing on speaking and reading rates. Journal of Communication Disorders 16:211226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramus, F., Dupoux, E., & Mehler, J. (2003). The psychological reality of rhythm classes: Perceptual studies. Proceedings of the 15th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences. Barcelona: Casual Productions. 337342.Google Scholar
Ramus, F., Nespor, M., & Mehler, J. (1999). Correlates of linguistic rhythm in the speech signal. Cognition 73:265292.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reubold, U., Harrington, J., & Klebera, F. (2010). Vocal aging effects on F0 and the first formant: A longitudinal analysis in adult speakers. Speech Communication 52:638651.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richards, J. (1970). The language factor in Māori schooling. In Ewing, J. & Shallcrass, J. (eds.) Introduction to Māori education: Selected readings. Wellington: New Zealand University Press. 122132.Google Scholar
Roach, P. (1982). On the distinction between ‘stress-timed’ and ‘syllable-timed’ languages. In Crystal, D. (ed.), Linguistic Controversies 7379.Google Scholar
Robertson, Shelley. (1994). Identifying Māori English: A study of ethnic identification, attitudes and phonetic features. Unpublished MA thesis. Wellington: Victoria University of Wellington.Google Scholar
Simpson, A. P. (2001). Dynamic consequences of differences in male and female vocal tract dimensions. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 109:21532164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Szakay, A.. (2006). Rhythm and pitch as markers of ethnicity in New Zealand English. In Warren, P. & Watson, C. I. (eds.) Proceedings of the 11th Australian International Conference on Speech Science & Technology. 421426.Google Scholar
Szakay, A. (2008). Ethnic dialect identification in New Zealand: The role of prosodic cues. Saarbrücken: VDM Verlag Dr. Müller.Google Scholar
Vaughan, G., & Huygens, I. (1990). Sociolinguistic stereotyping in New Zealand. In Bell, A. & Holmes, J. (eds.) New Zealand ways of speaking English. Wellington: Victoria University Press.Google Scholar
Warren, P. (1998). Timing patterns in New Zealand English rhythm. Te Reo 4:8093Google Scholar
Watson, C., Maclagan, M., & Harrington, J. (2000). Acoustic evidence for vowel change in New Zealand English. Language Variation and Change 12:5168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wells, J. C. (1982). Accents of English I: An introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, L., Mattys, S., Series, L., & Gage, S. (2007). Rhythm metrics predict rhythmic discrimination. In Proceedings of the 16th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, Saarbrűcken, 6–10th August 2007. http://eis.bris.ac.uk/~pslsw/White_Mattys_Series_Gage_2007.pdfGoogle Scholar
Xu, Y., & Sun, X. (2002). Maximum speed of pitch change and how it may relate to speech. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 111:13991413.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, S., Evermann, G., Hain, T., Kershaw, D., Moore, G., Odell, J., Ollason, D., Povey, D., Valtchev, V., & Woodland, P. (2002). The HTK book. Revised for HTK Version 3.2. http://htk.eng.cam.ac.Google Scholar