We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 12 March 2012
This paper discusses the political opportunity structures which facilitated the creation of sites of interaction and protest against the Asian Development Bank during the Bank's Annual General Meeting in Chiang Mai, Thailand, in 2000. The factors which facilitated the coming together of Thai social movements and their regional and international counterparts are mainly their shared critique of the neo-liberal paradigm and its adverse effects on their respective countries. The strategies they used to highlight these effects enhanced their sites of engagement and confrontation with the Bank and included dialogue with Bank officials, demonstrations, and the use of the media to highlight their concerns. Importance was also placed on the manner in which they were able to mobilize resources for the anti-Asian Development Bank campaigns and the process by which they framed their issues to gain the sympathy and support of the public. The 1997 Asian financial crisis, which highlighted the shortcomings of the Bank's development paradigm, as well as the ongoing democratization process in Thailand during that period, provided the impetus in fostering the anti-globalization alliances of local and transnational social movements in a common venue.
1 ‘Headquartered in the Philippines, the Asian Development Bank is the multilateral bank charged with promoting economic growth in developing countries in the Asia-Pacific region. Although its primary founding members and two largest stockholders are Japan and the United States, it now consists of 60 members’: see Nurina Widagdo, ‘Overview of What is to Happen in Hawaii’, Bank of Information Center Document, 9 March 2001, pp. 1–12.
2 Boutros Boutros-Gali, ‘An agenda for democratizing’, in Holden, Barry, Global Democracy: Key Debates (London and New York: Routledge, 2001), pp. 105–24Google Scholar.
3 Joseph Stiglitz, ‘Participation and Development: Perspectives from the Comprehensive Development Paradigm: Remarks at the International Conference on Democracy, Market Economy and Development, February 27, 1995, Seoul, Korea’, in Rajagapal, Balakrshnan, International Law from Below: Development, Social Movements and Third World Resistance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 151CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
4 Smith, Jackie, ‘Transnational Activism, Institutions and Global Democratization’, in Piper, Nicola and Uhlin, Anders, Transnational Activism in Asia: Problems of Power and Democracy (London and New York: Routledge, 2004), pp. 61–77Google Scholar.
5 Uamdao Noikorn, ‘Farmers Accept Future Fees Likely’, The Bangkok Post, 18 May 2000, in Encarnacion Tadem, Teresa S., ‘The Thai Social Movements and the Democratization Process: Challenging the State Through the Anti-Asian Development Bank Campaigns’, Asian Studies, 37 (1 & 2), 2001, pp. 35–53Google Scholar.
6 The Overseas Environmental Cooperation Fund became the Japan Bank for International Cooperation when it merged with the Japan Exim Bank.
7 One rai is equal to 1,600 square metres.
8 Rajesh Noel, ‘Villagers See Red over Dubious “Green Project” in Samut Prakarn’, The Nation, 5 May 2000, p. A5, in Tadem, ‘The Thai Social Movements’, pp. 35–51.
9 The implementation of the Samut Prakarn Wastewater Management Project was being supervised by the Pollution Control Department as the executing agency, including implementation of the pollution prevention and capacity-building programmes. See Asian Development Bank, Final Report of Inspection Panel on Samut Prakarn Wastewater Management Project, Appendix 1, Document, 14 December 2001, p. 5.
10 Supradit Kanwanich, ‘Money Down the Drain?’, Bangkok Post, 18 June 2000, p. C6. The term ‘turnkey basis’ refers to the fact that ‘the contractor had to find the land, provide the construction technology, construct and pre-operate the project for three years before handing it over to the authority’.
11 Nurina Widagdo and Jane Garrido, ‘Testing Asian Development Bank Accountability: The Case of the Samut Prakarn Wastewater Management Project in Thailand’, Document, Washington D.C., Bank Information Center, 18 February 2002, p. 4.
12 Encarnacion Tadem, Teresa S., ‘Thai Social Movements and the Anti-ADB Campaign’, Journal of Contemporary Asia, 33 (3), 2003, pp. 377–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
13 Supara Janchitfah, ‘Greenwastewater Project Mired in Controversy’, The Bangkok Post, 7 May 2000, p. C1, in Tadem, ‘Thai Social Movements and the Anti-ADB Campaign’, pp. 377–98.
14 For further details, see Tadem, ‘Thai Social Movements and the Anti-ADB Campaign’, pp. 377–98.
15 Khagram, Sanjeev, Riker, James V. and Sikkink, Kathryn, ‘From Santiago to Seattle: Transnational Advocacy Groups Restructuring World Politics’, in Khagram, Sanjeev, Riker, James V. and Sikkink, Kathryn (eds) Restructuring World Politics: Transnational Social Movements, Networks and Norms. Volume 14: Social Movements, Protest, and Contention (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 2002), pp. 3–23Google Scholar.
16 Tarrow, Sidney, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action, and Politics. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994)Google Scholar.
17 Klandermans, Bert and Staggenborg, Suzanne, ‘Introduction’, in Klandermans, Bert, Methods of Social Movement Research. Volume 16: Social Movements, Protest, and Contention (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 2002), pp. xGoogle Scholar.
18 Hipsher, Patricia L., ‘Democratic Transitions and Social Movement Outcomes: The Chilean Shantytown Dwellers’ Movement in Comparative Perspective’, in Giugni, Marco. G., McAdam, Doug and Tilly, Charles, From Contention to Democracy (London: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc., 1998), pp. 149–67Google Scholar.
19 Tadem, ‘The Thai Social Movements’, pp. 35–53.
20 ‘Thailand Takes Steps to Prevent Another Pie-in-the-Face Incident’, Business Day, 15 May 2000.
21 See Encarnacion Tadem, Teresa S., ‘Linking Local and Global Social Movements and the Anti-Asian Development Bank Campaigns: From Chaing Mai to Samut Prakarn’, Kasarinlan: Philippine Journal of Third World Studies, 23 (1), 2008, pp. 43–70Google Scholar.
22 Paul J. Nelson, ‘Agendas, Accountability, and Legitimacy Among Transnational Networks Lobbying the World Bank’, in Khagram et al. (eds), Restructuring World Politics, p. 152.
23 Ungpakorn, Giles Ji and O’Lincoln, Tom, ‘East Asia’, in Bircham, Emma and Carlton, John, Anti-Capitalism: A Guide to the Movement (London and Sydney: Bookmarks Publications, 2001), p. 247Google Scholar.
24 Nelson, ‘Agendas, Accountability, and Legitimacy’, p. 135.
25 Ji Ungpakorn and O’ Lincoln, ‘East Asia’, p. 244.
26 Widagdo and Garrido, ‘Testing Asian Development Bank Accountability’, p. 18.
27 Rich, Bruce, Mortgaging the Earth: The World Bank, Environmental Impoverishment, and the Crisis of Development (Boston: Beacon Press, 1994)Google Scholar.
28 Nelson, ‘Agendas, Accountability, and Legitimacy’, p. 135.
29 Quizon, Antonio B. and Perez-Corral, Violeta Q., The NGO Campaign on the Asian Development Bank (Manila: Asian NGO Coalition for Agrarian Reform and Rural Development, 1995), p. 2Google Scholar.
30 The Project for Economic Recovery is ‘a Thai environmentalist NGO that gives priority to their work by forging alliances with grassroots organizations and NGOs, student organizations, conservationists and mass media in Thailand’. It campaigns against socially and environmentally harmful development projects in Thailand. It is also concerned with intervening in the government's policy-formulating process. See Preecha Dechalert, ‘NGOs, Advocacy and Popular Protest: A Case Study of Thailand’, Centre for Voluntary Organisation, Department of Social Policy, CVO International Working Papers, Number 6, no date, p. 10.
31 The members of the Network of 38 People's Organizations are the following: Northern Farmers Network; Kanchanaburi Conservation Group; Bor Nog Conservation Group; Ban Krud Natural and Conservation Group; Klong Dan Local Community Projection Group; Isaan Farmers Cooperative Federation, Committee for the Solution of Farmer's Problems, Chiang Rai; Committee for the Solution of Farmer's Problems, Payao; Local Theatre Project; Four Regional Alternative Agricultural Network; Northern Farmer Network; Kok-Ing-nan River Network; Mae Thood River Network, Lampang; Mae Mog River Network, Lampang; Isaan Forest and Land Network; Thai Network for People Living with HIV/AIDS; Isaan River Network; Chiang Mai Consumer Network; Women Rights Network; Chiang Rai-Payao Rural Woman Network; Labor Network; Four Regional Slum Network; Chiang Mai Community Network; Media Center for People; Eastern Farmer Network; Southern Local Fisherman Federation; Student Federation of Thailand; Committee for Natural and Environment Conservation 16 Educational Institute; Assembly of Isaan Farmers; Assembly of Cassava Planter Thailand; Assembly of Indigenous People; Assembly of the Poor; Assembly of Moon River Basin; Group for Save Wang River; Nam Ping River Community Forest Network; Love Muang Nan Group; and Assembly of Northern Community Forest. (The People's Network of 38 Organizations List of Demands and Members, 2000).
32 Pongpaichit, Pasuk and Baker, Chris, Thailand: Economy and Politics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995)Google Scholar.
33 Interview with Assistant Professor Kasian Tejapira, Thammasat University, Bangkok, Thailand, 18 May 2000, in Tadem ‘Thai Social Movements and the anti-ADB Campaign’, p. 388.
34 Smith, Jackie, ‘Social Movements, International Institutions and Local Empowerment’, in Stiles, Kendall, Global Institutions and Local Empowerment: Competing Theoretical Perspective (London: MacMillan Press Ltd., 2000), p. 69Google Scholar.
35 Smith, ‘Social Movements’, p. 69.
36 For further details, see Tadem, ‘Linking Local and Global Social Movements’, pp. 43–70.
37 Colas, Alejandro, International Civil Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2002), p. 82Google Scholar.
38 Bice Maiguashca, ‘Contemporary Social Movements and the Making of World Politics’, PhD thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science, University of London, 2002, pp. 5–6.
39 Passy, Florence, ‘Social Networks Matter. But How?’, in Diani, Mario and McAdams, Doug (eds), Social Movements and Networks: Relational Approaches to Collective Action (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 21–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
40 The Asian Development Bank's inspection function is intended to: give affected people a formal channel for raising concerns about the Bank's involvement in specific projects; assist the Bank's board of directors in guiding the Bank's general operations; and complement other Bank efforts to improve project quality, transparency, and accountability. See Legal Rights and Natural Resources Centers and NGO Working Group on the Asian Development Bank, Document, ‘The Asian Development Bank Inspection Function: Two Views’, Forum Briefing 01–19, in Excerpts from Report of a Workshop on Legal Support Capacity-Building, Cavite, the Philippines, 21–22 March 2002. Despite its establishment in 1995, the inspection function was not activated until the case of Samut Prakarn Wastewater Management Project.
41 Khagram et al., ‘From Santiago to Seattle’, p. 19.
42 Khagram et al., ‘From Santiago to Seattle’, p. 19.
43 Risse, Thomas and Sikkink, Kathryn, ‘The Socialization of International Human Rights Norms into Domestic Practices: Introduction’, in Risse, Thomas, Ropp, Stephen C. and Sikkink, Kathryn (eds) The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
44 Pianta, Mario, ‘Parallel Summits of Global Civil Society’, in Anheier, Helmut, Glasius, Marlies and Kaldor, Mary (eds), Global Civil Society 2001 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001)Google Scholar.
45 People's Forum, ‘Executive Summary Press Briefing on the Asian Development Bank’, 1 May 2000.
46 People's Forum, ‘Executive Summary Press Briefing’.
47 Tadem, ‘Thai Social Movements and the anti-ADB Campaign’, p. 383.
48 Khagram et al., ‘From Santiago to Seattle’, pp. 12–13.
49 Smith, ‘Transnational Activism, Institutions and Global Democratization’.
50 Giugni, Marco G., ‘Explaining Cross-national Similarities among Social Movements’, in Smith, Jackie and Johnston, Hank (eds), Globalization and Resistance (London: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2002), p. 21Google Scholar.
51 Maiguashca, ‘Contemporary Social Movements’, p. 6.
52 Colas, International Civil Society, p. 76.
53 Tarrow, Power in Movement, p. 92.
54 Whittier, Nancy, ‘Meaning and Structure in Social Movements’, in Meyer, David S., Whittier, Nancy and Robnett, Belinda, Social Movements: Identity, Cultures and the State (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 299Google Scholar.
55 Whittier, ‘Meaning and Structure in Social Movements’, p. 299.
56 Meyer et.al., Social Movements, pp. 293–94.
57 Smith, Social Movements’, p. 70.
58 Smith, ‘Social Movements’, p. 70.
59 Nelson, ‘Agendas, Accountability, and Legitimacy’, p. 148.
60 Smith, ‘Transnational Activism, Institutions and Global Democratization’, p. 12.
61 Colas, International Civil Society, pp. 75–76.
62 Nelson, ‘Agendas, Accountability, and Legitimacy’, p. 152.
63 Nelson, ‘Agendas, Accountability, and Legitimacy’, p. 152.
64 Grugel, Jean, ‘State Power and Transnational Activism’, in Piper, Nicola and Uhlin, Anders, Transnational Activism in Asia: Problems of Power and Democracy (London and New York: Routledge, 2004), p. 38Google Scholar.
65 Quizon and Perez-Corral, The NGO Campaign, pp. 44–63.
66 Roy Laifungbam, Member, Centre for Organisation, Research and Education (Indigenous People's Centre for Policy and Human Rights in India's North East), ‘Letter to NGO Alliance on the Asian Development Bank’, Document, 24 April 2002.
67 Laifungbam, ‘Letter to NGO Alliance’.
68 Violeta Perez-Corral, Head, NGO Forum on the Asian Development Bank, ‘Letter Responding to Roy Laifungbam's Letter Regarding NGO Advocacy Work vis-à-vis the Asian Development Bank’, Document, 25 April 2002.
69 Perez-Corral, ‘Letter Responding to Roy Laifungbam's Letter’.
70 Marco G. Giugni and Florence Passy, ‘Contentious Politics in Complex Societies: New Social Movements between Conflict and Cooperation’, in Giugni et al. From Contention, p. 102.
71 Tadem, ‘Thai Social Movements and the anti-ADB campaign’, p. 387.
72 Colas, International Civil Society, p. 18.
