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INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW: WIELDING THE SWORD OF UNIVERSAL CRIMINAL JUSTICE?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 February 2012

Christopher Stephen
Affiliation:
LLB (Hons) (Aberdeen); LLM (LSE). The author is an associate at Volterra Fietta and qualified to practice law in Scotland (solicitor and notary public). Email: c.g.stephen@alumni.lse.ac.uk.

Abstract

Writing 62 years ago, Georg Schwarzenberger posited that international criminal law did not exist. As long as some States, those larger or more powerful, were held to a different standard, or, in fact, not held to account at all, it was premature to speak of such a thing. For Schwarzenberger, international criminal law was a misnomer without universal criminal justice. This article considers whether that same criticism can be made of international criminal law today. Indeed, it asks whether this is a realistic expectation in the first place. The recently concluded Review Conference of the International Criminal Court in Kampala, Uganda is seen as an ideal juncture at which to do so. This article analyses what is meant by the term international criminal law and then selects two models; the International Criminal Court and the exercise of universal jurisdiction, to gauge the success, or failure, of international criminal law in satisfying Schwarzenberger's criterion.

Type
Article
Copyright
Copyright © British Institute of International and Comparative Law 2012

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150 See, for example, ‘A Guide to the Memos on Torture’ New York Times (New York, 2005) http://www.nytimes.com/ref/international/24MEMO-GUIDE.html?_r=1.

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156 ibid. See also ‘Cleveland Outlines Obama's Effect on International Law’ 12 February 2010, <http://www.law.virginia.edu/html/news/2010_spr/jbmoore_keynote.htm.

157 See ‘Remarks of President Obama, Address to Joint Session of Congress, 24 February 2009’ <http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/remarks-of-president-barack-obama-address-to-joint-session-of-congress/>. See also D Howell, ‘International Law and the United Nations: A New Era of Engagement’ in R Niblett (ed), America and a Changed World: A Question of Leadership (Chatham House Papers 2010).

158 UN Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon, ‘An Age of Accountability’ (Address to the Review Conference of the International Criminal Court, 31 May 2010) <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/asp_docs/RC2010/Statements/ICC-RC-statements-BanKi-moon-ENG.pdf>.

159 ibid 1.

160 See ICC Resolution RC/Res 4 (10 June 2010) <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/asp_docs/Resolutions/RC-Res.4-ENG.pdf>.

161 See Statement of the Philippine Observer Delegation (1 June 2010) <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/asp_docs/RC2010/Statements/ICC-RC-gendeba-Philippines-ENG.pdf>.

162 ‘The Aggression Negotiations at the ICC Review Conference’ EJIL: Talk (8 June 2010) <http://www.ejiltalk.org/the-aggression-negotiations-at-the-icc-review-conference/>.

163 See Sriram, CL, ‘ICC Hypocrisy Over War CrimesThe Guardian (London, 22 June 2010)Google Scholar <http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/jun/22/icc-hypocrisy-article-124-war-crimes>.

165 Memo from Jack Straw, British Foreign Secretary, to Michael Wood, Legal Adviser, ‘Iraq: Legal Basis for Use of Force’ (29 January 2003) <http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/media/43511/doc_2010_01_26_11_04_18_456.pdf>.

166 ‘International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg), Judgment and Sentences, 1 October 1946’ (1947) 41 AJIL 172, 186.

167 See, for example, ‘Attorney General's Advice on the Iraq War: Resolution 1441’ (2005) 54 ICLQ 767 [34]; Regina v Jones (Margaret) and others [2007] 1 AC 136 [12] (Lord Bingham), [44] (Lord Hoffmann), [99] (Lord Mance).

168 Cassese, A (ed), The Oxford Companion to International Criminal Justice (OUP 2009) 236Google Scholar.

169 See Weisbord, N, ‘Prosecuting Aggression’ (2008) 49 Harv IntlLJ 161, 219Google Scholar. See also Glennon, MJ, ‘The Blank-prose Crime of Aggression’ (2010) 35 Yale JIntlL 71Google Scholar.

170 Justice Jackson's Opening Statement (n 79) 100.

171 See Memorandum for Alberto R Gonzales, Counsel to the President from Office of the Assistant Attorney General Jay S Bybee (1 August 2002) 46 <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/documents/dojinterrogationmemo20020801.pdf>.

172 Similarly, see Jochnick, C, and Normand, R, ‘The Legitimation of Violence: A Critical History of the Laws of War’ (1994) 35 Harv IntlLJ 49Google Scholar, 50 for a historical critique of the use of the laws of war to ‘legalise inhumane military methods and their consequences’.

173 See Waldron, J, ‘Torture and Positive Law: Jurisprudence for the White House’ (2005) 105 Columbia LRev 1681, 1701Google Scholar: ‘There are some scales one really should not be on, and with respect to which one really does not have a legitimate interest in knowing precisely how far along the scale one is permitted to go.’

174 Annex 1, art 8 bis (1) of ICC, RC/Res 6 ‘The Crime of Aggression’ (11 June 2010) <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/asp_docs/Resolutions/RC-Res.6-ENG.pdf>.

175 Justic Jackson's Opening Statement (n 79) 105.

176 See art 231 (the ‘War Guilt’ clause) of the Versailles Treaty <http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/versailles_menu.asp>.

177 Simpson, G, Law, War and Crime: War Crimes Trials and the Reinvention of International Law (Polity 2007) 63Google Scholar.

178 Taylor, AJP, The Origins of the Second World War (Hamish Hamilton Ltd 1962) 12Google Scholar.

179 Braithwaite, J, ‘Challenging Just Deserts: Punishing White Collar Criminals’ (1982) 73 J of Criminal Law and Criminology 723, 755CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

180 See Fest, JC, The Face of the Third Reich: Portraits of the Nazi Leadership (Weidenfeld and Nicolson 1970)Google Scholar.

181 See Cassese, A, ‘Reflections on International Criminal Justice’ (1998) 61 MLR 1, 3Google Scholar: ‘forgetting makes a mockery of the dead’.

182 Statement by Harold Hongju Koh, Legal Advisor, United States Department of State, Regarding Crime of Aggression at the Resumed Eighth Session of the Assembly of States Parties of the International Criminal Court (New York, 23 March 2010) <http://usun.state.gov/briefing/statements/2010/139000.htm>.

183 See Schabas, WA, The International Criminal Court: A Commentary on the Rome Statute (OUP 2010) 114CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Case Concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of Congo v Uganda) (Judgment of 19 December 2005) ICJ Reports 2005, para 3 (separate opinion of Judge Simma).

184 See Annex 1, art 15 bis (9) of ICC, RC/Res 6 ‘The Crime of Aggression’: ‘A determination of an act of an aggression by an organ outside the Court shall be without prejudice to the Court's own findings under this Statute’ <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/asp_docs/Resolutions/RC-Res.6-ENG.pdf>.

185 See Heller, KJ, ‘The Sadly Neutered Crime of AggressionOpinio Juris (13 June 2010)Google Scholar <http://opiniojuris.org/2010/06/13/the-sadly-neutered-crime-of-aggression/>.

186 See, for example, Helfer, LR and Slaughter, A-M, ‘Why States Create International Tribunals: A Response to Professors Posner and Yoo’ (2005) 93 California LRev 899, 902Google Scholar.

187 Hirschman, AO, Exit, Voice and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations and States (Harvard University Press 1970)Google Scholar.

188 This action directly followed an adverse decision of the ICJ concerning the treatment of Mexican nationals on death row by the United States' authorities. See Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v United States) (Judgment of 31 March 2004) [2004] ICJ Reports 128.

189 Annex 1, art 15 bis (2) of ICC, RC/Res 6.

190 ibid art 15 bis (3). See also art 121(3) of the Rome Statute.

191 Annex 1, Art 15 bis (5) of ICC, RC/Res 6.

192 ibid art 15 bis (4).

193 See ‘Waltz with Bashir’ The Guardian (London, 5 March 2009), <http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/mar/05/al-bashir-darfur-crimes-icc>.

194 See Assembly/AU/Dec 245(XIII) Rev 1, Decision on the Meeting of African States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Assembly/AU/13(XIII) <http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/Conferences/2009/july/summit/decisions/ASSEMBLY%20AU%20DEC%20243%20-%20267%20(XIII)%20_E.PDF>.

195 See ‘China Calls for ICC Case Against Sudan President Omar-al-Bashir to be Dropped’ Daily Telegraph (London, 5 March 2009) <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/sudan/4940876/China-calls-for-ICC-case-against-Sudan-president-Omar-al-Bashir-to-be-dropped.html>.

196 See ‘World Reaction: Bashir Warrant’ BBC News (4 March 2009) <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7923797.stm>.

197 ‘The ICC and Sudan: A Dilemma Over Darfur’ The Economist (London, 15 July 2008) <http://www.economist.com/node/11737170>. See also L Oette, ‘Peace and Justice, or Neither? The Repercussions of the al-Bashir Case for International Criminal Justice in Africa and Beyond’ (2010) 8 Journal of International Criminal Justice 345.

198 ‘The Mask of Altruism Disguising a Colonial War’ The Guardian (London, 2 August 2004) <http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2004/aug/02/sudan.oil>. See also ‘China is “Fuelling War in Darfur”’ BBC News (13 July 2008) <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7503428.stm>.

199 See ‘Darfur Warrant for Sudan's Bashir: ICC Adds Genocide’ BBC News (12 July 2010) <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/10603559.stm>. See also L Moreno-Ocampo, ‘Now End This Darfur Denial’ The Guardian (London, 15 July 2010) <http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/libertycentral/2010/jul/15/world-cannot-ignore-darfur>.

200 ‘The choice between justice and peace is no longer an option. We must be ambitious enough to pursue both, and wise enough to recognize, respect and protect the independence of justice.’ Address by Mr Kofi Annan, Review Conference of the Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Kampala, Uganda (31 May 2010) para 54 <http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/asp_docs/RC2010/Statements/ICC-RC-statements-KofiAnnan-ENG.pdf>.

201 ‘Perhaps the most contentious challenge you face is the balance between peace and justice. Yet frankly, I see it as a false choice’ (Ban Ki-Moon (n 158) 3).

202 Rice, X, ‘Chad Refuses to Arrest Omar al-Bashir on Genocide ChargesThe Guardian (London, 22 July 2010)Google Scholar <http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/22/chad-refuses-arrest-omar-al-bashir>.

203 Harrington, J, ‘An End to War Through a Court of Paw? Perhaps—and in TimeEJIL: Talk (14 June 2010)Google Scholar <http://www.ejiltalk.org/an-end-to-war-through-a-court-of-law-perhaps-and-in-time/>.

204 Koh (n 62).

205 H Kissinger, ‘The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction’ (2001) Foreign Affairs.

206 L Reydams, ‘The Rise and Fall of Universal Jurisdiction’ (2010) Leuven Centre for Global Governance Studies, Working Paper 37 <http://ghum.kuleuven.be/ggs/publications/working_papers/new_series/wp31-40/wp37.pdf>.

207 The Princeton Principles on Universal Jurisdiction (2001) <http://lapa.princeton.edu/hosteddocs/unive_jur.pdf>. Put another way, ‘It is the heinousness of the offence that instils a right in any or all states to take action on behalf of humanity’ (L Ariamatsu, ‘Universal Jurisdiction for International Crimes: Africa's Hope for Justice?’ (2010) Chatham House Briefing Paper, 7).

208 See Reydams, L, Universal Jurisdiction: International and Municipal Legal Perspectives (OUP 2003) 5Google Scholar. See also R O'Keefe, ‘Universal Jurisdiction: Clarifying the Basic Concept’ (2004) 2 Journal of International Criminal Justice 735, 745.

209 ‘Tzipi Livni arrest warrant prompts Israeli government travel ‘ban’’ The Guardian (London, 15 December 2009) http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/dec/15/tzipi-livni-arrest-warrant-israeli?INTCMP=SRCH.

211 ibid paras 187, 1849–57.

212 ‘Israeli Opposition Leader Tzipi Livni “Cancels London Visit Over Prosecution Fears”’ Daily Telegraph (London, 14 December 2009) <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/6811578/Israeli-opposition-leader-Tzipi-Livni-cancels-London-visit-over-prosecution-fears.html>.

213 Brown, G, ‘Britain Must Protect Foreign Leaders from Private Arrest WarrantsDaily Telegraph (London, 3 March 2010)Google Scholar <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/gordon-brown/7361967/Britain-must-protect-foreign-leaders-from-arrest.html>.

215 ‘Government's Move to Curb Universal Jurisdiction Sends Wrong Message’ The Guardian (London, 27 July 2010) <http://www.guardian.co.uk/law/2010/jul/27/universal-jurisdiction-law>.

216 See ‘Arrest Warrants—Universal Jurisdiction’ (17 March 2010) Ministry of Justice Note <http://www.justice.gov.uk/publications/docs/arrests-warrants.pdf>.

217 See ‘Liberty's Response to the Government's Proposals on Arrest Warrants for Crimes Subject to Universal Jurisdiction’ (April 2010) <http://www.liberty-human-rights.org.uk/pdfs/policy10/liberty-s-response-to-proposals-on-arrest-warrants.pdf>.

219 ‘Move to Change Law on “Political” Arrest Warrants Postponed Until After Election’ The Guardian (London, 4 March 2010) <http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2010/mar/04/gordon-brown-tzipi-livni-arrest-warrants-change-law>.

220 Ministry of Justice, ‘New Rules on Universal Jurisdiction’ (22 July 2010) <http://www.justice.gov.uk/news/newsrelease220710b.htm>. For criticism of the coalition government's proposal, see D Machover, ‘Arrest Warrant Plans Make a Mockery of Universal Jurisdiction’ The Guardian (London, 30 March 2011) <http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/mar/30/coalition-criminal-justice-universal-jurisdiction>.

221 See JUSTICE press release, ‘Proposed Changes to Arrest Warrant Rules “A Free Pass to Suspected War Criminals”’ (22 July 2010) <http://www.justice.org.uk/data/files/resources/49/22jul10-Proposed-changes-to-arrest-warrant-rules-a-free-pass-to-suspected-war-criminals.pdf>.

222 See CPS, ‘CPS Statement in Relation to Ms Livni's Visit’ (6 October 2011) <http://www.cps.gov.uk/news/press_statements/_cps_statement_in_relation_to_ms_livni_s_visit/>.

223 Chinkin, C, ‘United Kingdom House of Lords: Regina v. Bow Street Stipendiary Magistrate, ex parte Pinochet Ugarte (Spanish Request for Extradition)’ (1999) 93 AJIL 703, 711CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

224 Reydams ‘Rise and Fall’ (n 206) 27.

225 The Government of the Republic of Serbia v Ejup Ganic [2010] EW Misc 11 (MC).

226 Regina v Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate and Others, Ex parte Pinochet Ugarte (No 3) [2000] 1 AC 147 [190F] (Lord Browne-Wilkinson).

227 Taylor, T, The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials: A Personal Memoir (Knopf 1992) 641Google Scholar.

228 International Bar Association Human Rights Institute, ‘Justice Goldstone Gives Award Acceptance Speech and Discusses the Development of Universal Jurisdiction’ (4 December 2009) <http://www.ibanet.org/Article/Detail.aspx?ArticleUid=AC0FCACE-3B7B-4E2E-AD7C-1FC0787AF090>.

229 Simpson, ‘War Crimes’ (n 177) 1.

230 Koskenniemi, M, From Apology to Utopia: The Structure of International Legal Argument (reissue, CUP 2005) 20Google Scholar.

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235 Duffett (n 117) 4.

236 See, for example, Robinson, DThe Controversy Over Territorial State Referrals and Reflections on ICL Discourse’ (2010) 9 Journal of International Criminal Justice 355, 367CrossRefGoogle Scholar : ‘One of the most prominent and recurring teleological critiques is that states may provide referrals to advance their own agenda, which may diverge from the aims of the ICC’.

237 Plessy v Ferguson 163 US 537 (1896) 559.

238 Simpson, Great Powers (n 6) xi.

239 ibid, 294.

240 Gordon, J, Invisible War: The United States and the Iraq Sanctions (Harvard University Press 2010) 230Google Scholar.

241 Simpson Great Powers (n 6) x.

242 ibid.

243 ibid xiii.