Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-ws8qp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-19T02:51:15.274Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The quality of the mother–child relationship in high-risk dyads: Application of the Emotional Availability Scales in an intergenerational, longitudinal study

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 January 2012

Dale M. Stack*
Affiliation:
Concordia University
Lisa A. Serbin
Affiliation:
Concordia University
Nadine Girouard
Affiliation:
Concordia University
Leah N. Enns
Affiliation:
Concordia University
Vivianne M. N. Bentley
Affiliation:
Concordia University
Jane E. Ledingham
Affiliation:
University of Ottawa
Alex E. Schwartzman
Affiliation:
Concordia University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Dale M. Stack, Centre for Research in Human Development and Department of Psychology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada; E-mail: dale.stack@concordia.ca.

Abstract

The present research examined how family psychosocial risk may be associated with emotional availability (EA) across age and time in two longitudinal, intergenerational studies with high-risk, disadvantaged mother–child dyads. Study 1 examined dyads during preschool and middle childhood. Study 2 examined a different sample of dyads, tested intensively at five time points (6, 12, and 18 months; preschool; and school age). Across studies, maternal childhood histories of aggression and social withdrawal predicted negative EA (higher levels of maternal hostility) during mother–child interactions at preschool age. In Study 1, mothers with higher levels of social withdrawal during childhood had preschoolers who were less appropriately responsive to and involving of their mothers during interactions. In Study 2, higher levels of observed appropriate maternal structuring predicted child responsiveness while observed maternal sensitivity (and structuring) predicted observed child involvement. More maternal social support and better home environment combined with lower stress predicted better mother–child relationship quality. Findings contribute to the burgeoning literature on EA by focusing on a high-risk community sample across time and generations. Results are interpreted in light of the developmental psychopathology framework, and have implications for a broader understanding of how EA is related to parental history and personal characteristics, as well as ongoing family and environmental context.

Type
Special Section Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abidin, R. R. (1990). Parenting Stress Index (PSI) manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.Google Scholar
Abidin, R. R. (1995). Parenting Stress Index (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.Google Scholar
Barkley, R. A. (1990). A critique of current diagnostic criteria for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Clinical and research implications. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 11, 343352.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, A., Daley, D., Hastings, R., & Stevenson, J. (2004). Mothers' expressed emotion towards children with and without intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 48, 628638.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Biringen, Z. (2000). Emotional availability: Conceptualization and research findings. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 104114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Biringen, Z., & Easterbrooks, A. (2012). Emotional availability: Concept, research, and window on developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Biringen, Z., Emde, R., Brown, D., Lowe, L., Myers, S., & Nelson, D. (1999). Emotional availability and emotional communication in naturalistic mother–infant interactions: Evidence for gender relations. Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 14, 463478.Google Scholar
Biringen, Z., Fidler, D., Barrett, K., & Kubicek, L. (2005). Applying the Emotional Availability Scales to children with disabilities. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26, 369391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Biringen, Z., Robinson, J., & Emde, R. (1994). Maternal sensitivity in the second year: Gender-based relations in the dyadic balance of control. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 64, 7890.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Biringen, Z., Robinson, J. L., & Emde, R. N. (1993). Emotional Availability Scales: Infancy to early childhood version. Retrieved from www.emotionalavailability.comGoogle Scholar
Biringen, Z., Robinson, J. L., & Emde, R. N. (1998). The Emotional Availability Scales. Retrieved from www.emotionalavailability.com.Google Scholar
Bryk, A., & Raudenbush, S. (1992). Hierarchical liear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.Google Scholar
Caldwell, B., & Bradley, R. (1984). Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment. Little Rock, AR: University of Arkansas at Little Rock.Google Scholar
Calzada, E., Eyberg, S., Rich, B., & Querido, J. (2004). Parenting disruptive preschoolers: Experiences of mothers and fathers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 203213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., & Elder, G. (1988a). Childhood precursors of the life course: Early personality and life disorganization. In Hetherington, E. M. & Lerner, R. M. (Eds.), Child development in life-span perspective (pp. 115142). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., & Elder, G. (1988b). Emergent family patterns: The intergenerational construction of problem behavior and relationships. In Hinde, R. A. & Stevenson-Hinde, J. (Eds.), Relationship within families: Mutual influences (pp. 218240). Oxford: Clarendon.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (1993). Developmental psychopathology: Reactions, reflections, projections. Developmental Review, 13, 471–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (2006). Development and psychopathology. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology, theory and method (2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 123). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2009). The past achievements and future promises of developmental psychopathology: The coming of age of a discipline. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1625.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Genna, N. M., Stack, D. M., Serbin, L. A., Ledingham, J, & Schwartzman, A. E. (2006). From risky behavior to health risk: Continuity across two generations. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 27, 297309.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Easterbrooks, M. A., Chaudhuri, J. H., & Gestsdottir, S. (2005). Patterns of emotional availability among young mothers and their infants: A dyadic, contextual analysis. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26, 309326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emde, R. N. (1980). Emotional availability: A reciprocal reward system for infants and parents with implications for prevention of psychosocial disorders. In Taylor, P. M. (Ed.), Parent–infant relationships (pp. 87115). Orlando, FL: Grune & Stratton.Google Scholar
Emde, R. N. (2000). Next steps in emotional availability research. Attachment and Human Development, 2, 242248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Felner, R. D., Brand, S., Dubois, D. L., Adan, A. M., Mulhall, P. F., & Evans, E. G. (1995). Socioeconomic disadvantage, proximal environmental experiences and socio-emotional and academic adjustment in early adolescence: Investigation of a mediated effects model. Child Development, 66, 774792.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grunzeweig, N., Stack, D. M., Serbin, L. A., Ledingham, J., & Schwartzman, A. E. (2009). Maternal request strategies and child compliance and noncompliance: Effects of age, context, and risk. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30, 724737.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Little, C., & Carter, A. (2005). Negative emotional reactivity and regulation in 12-month-olds following emotional challenge: Contributions of maternal–infant emotional availability in a low-income sample. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26, 354368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, J. P, Stack, D. M., Serbin, L. A., Ledingham, J., & Schwartzman, A. E. (in press). Social problem solving in high-risk mother–child dyads: An intergenerational study. Social Development.Google Scholar
Melnick, S., & Hinshaw, S. (2000). Emotion regulation and parenting in AD/HD and comparison boys: Linkages with social behaviors and peer preference. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 7386.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLoyd, V. (1990). The impact of economic hardship on black families and children: Psychological distress, parenting, and socio-emotional development. Child Development, 61, 311346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLoyd, V. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53, 185204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moehler, E., Biringen, Z., & Poustka, L. (2007). Emotional availability in a sample of mothers with a history of abuse. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77, 624628.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moskowitz, D., & Schwartzman, A. (1989). Painting group portraits: Studying life outcomes for aggressive and withdrawn children. Journal of Personality, 57, 723746.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moszkowski, R. J., Stack, D. M., & Chiarella, S. S. (2009). Infant touch with gaze and affective behaviors during mother–infant still-face interactions: Co-occurrence and functions of touch. Infant Behavior & Development, 32, 392403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Musick, J. S., Stott, F. M., Spencer, K. K., Goldman, J., & Cohler, B. J. (1987). Maternal factors related to vulnerability and resiliency in young children at risk. In Anthony, E. J. & Cohler, B. J. (Eds.), The invulnerable child (pp. 229252). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Nock, S. L., & Rossi, P. H. (1979). Household types and social standing. Social Forces, 57, 13251356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oyen, A., Landy, S., & Hilburn-Cobb, C. (2000). Maternal attachment and sensitivity in an at-risk sample. Attachment & Human Development, 2, 203217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patterson, G. (2002). The early development of coercive family process. In Reid, J. B., Patterson, G. R., & Snyder, J. (Eds.), Antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: A developmental analysis and model for intervention (pp. 2544). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Pekarik, E. G., Prinz, A. J., Liebert, D. E., Weintraub, S., & Neale, J. M. (1976). The pupil evaluation inventory: A sociometric technique for assessing children's social behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 4, 8397.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pipp-Siegel, S. (1996, April). Emotional availability in mother–toddler dyads of different risk statuses. Paper presented at the 10th Biennial Meeting of the International Conference of Infant Studies, Providence, RI.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubin, K., Burgess, K., & Hastings, P. (2002). Stability and social–behavioral consequences of toddlers' inhibited temperament and parenting behaviors. Child Development, 73, 483495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubin, K. H., Burgess, K. B., & Coplan, R. J. (2002). Social withdrawal and shyness. In Smith, P. K. & Hart, C. H. (Eds.), Blackwell's handbook of childhood social development (pp. 329352). London: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Rubin, K. H., Stewart, S. L., & Coplan, R. J. (1995). Social withdrawal in childhood: Conceptual and empirical perspectives. In Ollendick, T. H. & Prinz, R. J. (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 17, pp. 157196). New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salovey, P., & Sluyter, D. (1997). Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Educational implications. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Saltaris, C., Serbin, L. A., Stack, D. M., Karp, J., Schwartzman, A. E., & Ledingham, J. E. (2004). Nurturing cognitive competence in preschoolers: A longitudinal study of intergenerational continuity and risk. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28, 105115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwartzman, A. E., Ledingham, J. E., & Serbin, L. A. (1985). Identification of children at risk for adult schizophrenia: A longitudinal study. International Review of Applied Psychology, 34, 363380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Serbin, L. A., Cooperman, J. M., Peters, P. L., Lehoux, P. M., Stack, D. M., & Schwartzman, A. E. (1998). Intergenerational transfer of psychosocial risk in women with childhood histories of aggression, withdrawal or aggression and withdrawal. Developmental Psychology, 34, 12461262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Serbin, L. A., & Karp, J. (2004). The intergenerational transfer of psychosocial risk: Mediators of vulnerability and resilience. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 333363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Serbin, L. A., Stack, D. M., & Schwartzman, A. E. (2000). Identification and prediction of risk and resiliency in high-risk preschoolers: An intergenerational study (Final Report 6070-10-5/9515). Ottawa: Child, Youth and Family Health Unit, Child and Youth Division, Health Canada.Google Scholar
Serbin, L. A., Stack, D. M., Schwartzman, A. E., Cooperman, J., Bentley, V., Saltaris, C., et al. (2002). A longitudinal study of aggressive and withdrawn children into adulthood: Patterns of parenting and risk to offspring. In McMahon, R. J. & Peters, R. D. (Eds.), The effects of parental dysfunction on children (pp. 4369). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shrout, P. E., & Fleiss, J. L. (1979). Intraclass correlations: Uses in assessing rater reliability. Psychology Bulletin, 86, 420428.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stack, D. M., Serbin, L.A., Enns, L. N., Ruttle, P., & Barrieau, L. (2010). Parental effects on children's emotional development over time and across generations. Infants and Young Children, 23, 5269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stack, D. M., Serbin, L. A., Schwartzman, A. E., & Ledingham, J. (2005). Girls' aggression across the life course: Long-term outcomes and intergenerational risk. In Peplar, D., Madsen, K., Webster, C., & Levene, K. (Eds.), Development and treatment of girlhood aggression (pp. 253283). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1996). Using multivariate statistics (3rd ed.). New York: Harper Collins.Google Scholar
Telleen, S. (1985). Parenting social support: Reliability and validity [Technical Report No. 1]. Chicago: University of Illinois at Chicago, School of Public Health.Google Scholar
Treiman, D. J. (1977). Occupational prestige in comparative perspective. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Tronick, E. Z., Als, H., Adamson, L., Wise, S., & Brazelton, T. B. (1978). The infant's response to entrapment between contradictory messages in face-to-face interaction. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 17, 113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiefel, A., Wollenweber, S., Oepen, G., Lenz, K., Lehmkuhl, U., & Biringen, Z. (2005). Emotional availability in infant psychiatry. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26, 392403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolkind, S., & Rutter, M. (1985). Sociocultural factors. In Rutter, M. & Hersov, L. (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychiatry (pp. 82100). London: Blackwell.Google Scholar