Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-sxzjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-17T21:28:39.868Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Investment regionalism in Asia: new directions in law and policy?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 December 2011

SAADIA PEKKANEN
SAADIA PEKKANEN*
Affiliation:
University of Washington, Seattle
*
*Email: smp1@uw.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Although Asian regionalism has commanded much attention from academics and policymakers, it has largely been restricted to the trade and financial realms. This paper focuses specifically on the scope and limits of ‘investment regionalism’ involving Asia. A combination of regional foreign direct investment (FDI) stakes and international socialization patterns has led Asian actors to mark investments as a key issue in their regionalism strategy overall. As elsewhere, they too have moved toward a mode of governance favoring the formal legalization of investments in terms of the precision, obligation, and delegation of rules. Already the endeavors of both the middle and dominant economies in the region have shifted from just concluding Bilateral Investment Treaties (BITs) and investment-related chapters in Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) to designing region-wide investment agreements and initiatives by-and-for Asian countries. Although the legal effectiveness of this rule-making change will play out in the long run in and across Asian societies, the more immediate policy implication relates to its potential impact on the evolution of Asian regionalism as a whole.

Type
Review Article
Information
World Trade Review , Volume 11 , Issue 1 , January 2012 , pp. 119 - 154
Copyright
Copyright © Saadia Pekkanen 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abbot, K. W. et al. (2000), ‘The Concept of Legalization’, International Organization, 54: 401–419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Acharya, A. (1997), ‘Ideas, Identity, and Institution-Building: From the “ASEAN Way” to the “Asia-Pacfic Way”?’ The Pacific Review, 10: 319–346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Acharya, A. (2008), Asia Rising: Who Is Leading? Singapore: World Scientific.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aggarwal, V. K. and Koo, Ming Gyo (2008), ‘Asia's New Institutional Architecture: Evolving Structures for Managing Trade, Financial, and Security Relations’, in Aggarwal, V. K. and Koo, Ming Gyo (eds.), Asia's New Instituional Architecture: Evolving Structures for Managing Trade, Financial, and Security Relations, Berlin: Springer, pp. 1–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aggarwal, V. K. and Urata, S. (2005), Bilateral Trade Agreements in the Asia-Pacific: Origins, Evolution, and Implications, London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Alexandrov, S., Moroney, M., and Porges, A. (2009), ‘FDI Growth in Asia: The Potential for Treaty-Based Investment Protection’, The Asia Pacific Arbitration Review 2009, available online at globalarbitrationreview.com (accessed 19 March 2010).Google Scholar
Amarasinha, S. D. and Kokott, J. (2008), ‘Multilateral Investment Rules Revisited’, in Muchlinski, P., Ortino, F., and Schreuer, C. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of International Investment Law, New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 119–153.Google Scholar
ASEAN (2009), ‘ASEAN–China Investment Agreement’, Fact Sheet, 15 August, available online at www.aseansec.org (accessed 1 September 2009).Google Scholar
ASEAN (2010), ‘ASEAN Statistics: Top Ten Sources of Foreign Direct Investment Inflows to ASEAN’, Table 27, as of 15 July 2010, available online at www.aseansec.org (accessed 1 June 2011).Google Scholar
Asian Regional Integration Centre (ARIC), Integration Indicators Database, FDI Integration Indicators, available online at www.aric.adb.org (accessed 12 May 2011).Google Scholar
Asian Regional Integration Centre (ARIC) ‘Trade and Investment: FTA Trends’, data available online at aric.adb.org (accessed 3 September 2010).Google Scholar
Athukorala, P.-C. (2009), ‘Outward Foreign Direct Investment from India’, Asian Development Review, 26: 125–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banque de France (2009), 2009 Annual Report: The French Balance of Payments and International Investment Position, Eurosystème, available online at www.banque-france.fr (accessed 20 June 2011).Google Scholar
Bath, V. and Nottage, L. (eds.) (forthcoming), Foreign Investment and Dispute Resolution Law and Practice in Asia, London and New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bhagwati, J. (2008), Termites in the Trading System: How Preferential Agreements Undermine Free Trade, Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breslin, S., Higgott, R., and Rosamond, B. (2002), ‘Regions in Comparative Perspective’, in Shaun, B., Hughes, C. W., Philipps, N., and Rosamond, B. (eds.), New Regionalisms in the Global Political Economy, New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 1–19.Google Scholar
Bridges Weekly Trade News Digest (1998), ‘OECD Talks on MAI Officially End’, Bridges Weekly Trade News Digest, 2(48), 14 December.Google Scholar
Bridges Weekly Trade News Digest (2003), ‘WTO Members Fail To Make Progress at Mini-Ministerial’, Bridges Weekly Trade News Digest, 7(23), 25 June.Google Scholar
Calder, K. E. (2006), ‘China and Japan's Simmering Rivalry’, Foreign Affairs, 85: 129–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Checkel, J. T. (2005), ‘International Institutions and Socialization in Europe: Introduction and Framework’, International Organization, 59: 801–826.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daily Yomiuri (2006), ‘Govt to Push Asian EPA Talks’, The Daily Yomiuri, 5 April.Google Scholar
Davies, K. (2009), ‘On China's rapid growth in outward FDI’, China Daily, 3 August, available online at www.chinadaily.com.cn (accessed 10 September 2010).Google Scholar
Dawson, C. and Dean, J. (2011), ‘Rising China Bests a Shrinking Japan’, The Wall Street Journal, 14 February.Google Scholar
Dent, C. M. (2008), East Asian Regionalism, New York, NY: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deutsche Bundesbank (2006), ‘Germany Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Relationships: Recent Trends and Macroeconomic Effects’, Monthly Report, September 2006, available online at www.bundesbank.de (accessed 27 June 2011).Google Scholar
Deutsche Bundesbank (2011a), Direct Investment Acc. To the Balance of Payments Statistics for the Reporting Period 2007 to 2010, April 2011, available online at www.bundesbank.de (accessed 27 June 2011).Google Scholar
Deutsche Bundesbank (2011b), ‘New Results of the Foreign Direct Investment Stock Statistics’, Press Release, 29 April 2011, available online at www.bundesbank.de (accessed 27 June 2011).Google Scholar
Elkins, Z., Guzman, A. T., and Simmons, B. A. (2006), ‘Competing for Capital: The Diffusion of Bilateral Investment Treaties, 1960–2000’, International Organization, 60: 811–846.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Secretariat, Energy Charter (2004), The Energy Charter Treaty and Related Documents: A Legal Framework for International Energy Cooperation, Brussels, Belgium: Energy Charter Secretariat.Google Scholar
Fan, Y. ‘Slow Progress Toward FTA’, China Daily, 31 May, available online at www.chinadaily.com.cn (accessed 6 June 2011).Google Scholar
Franck, S. D. (2007), ‘Foreign Direct Investment, Investment Treaty Arbitration, and the Rule of Law’, Global Business and Development Law Journal, 19: 338–373.Google Scholar
Germany Trade and Invest, Investment Agency of the Federal Republic of Germany, ‘FDI Data’, available online at www.gtai.com (accessed 27 June 2011).Google Scholar
Grimes, W. W. (2009), Currency and Contest in East Asia: The Great Power Politics of Financial Regionalism, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Haggard, S. (2009), ‘The Organizational Architecture of the Asia-Pacific: Insights from the New Institutionalism’, Background Paper 13, Study Finalization Workshop on Institutions for Regionalism in Asia and the Pacific, 2–3 December 2009, Shanghai, PRC: 1–30.Google Scholar
Hamanaka, S. (2011), ‘Examination of the Singapore Shift in Japan's Foreign Direct Investment in Services in ASEAN’, ADBI Working Paper Series, No. 267: 1–20.Google Scholar
Hatch, W. and Yamamura, K. (1996), Asia in Japan's Embrace: Building a Regional Production Alliance, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hattari, R. and Rajan, R. S. (2008), ‘Sources of FDI Flows to Developing Asia: The Roles of Distance and Time Zones’, ADB Institute Working Paper No. 117, September: 1–13.Google Scholar
Higgott, R. and Timmermann, M. (2008), ‘Institutionalizing East Asia: Learning Lessons from Europe on Regionalism, Regionalization, Identity and Leadership’, in Timmermann, M. and Tsuchiyama, J. (eds.), Institutionalizing Northeast Asia: Regional Steps Towards Global Governance, Tokyo: United Nations University, pp. 43–62.Google Scholar
Hirashima, K. (2009), ‘European Integration in a Historical Perspective: How Did It Begin and What Are the Lessons for Asia?’, in Nakamura, Tamio (ed.), East Asian Regionalism from a Legal Perspective: Current Features and a Vision for the Future, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 107–21.Google Scholar
Ibarra-Caton, M. (2010), ‘Direct Investment Positions for 2009: Country and Industry Detail’, July 2010, available online at www.bea.gov (accessed 11 June 2011).Google Scholar
Iida, Keisuke (2010), ‘Trilateral Diaologue in Northeast Asia: A Case Study of Spillover from Economic to Security Cooperation’, January, University of Tokyo.Google Scholar
Invest Korea M&A (2010), ‘Invest Korea Opens China Desk’, 12 May 2010, available online through www.investkoreasmes.com (accessed 1 September 2010).Google Scholar
Investment Arbitration (IA) Reporter (2008), ‘Czech Republic to Pay Dutch Firm Saluka $181 Million (US), Plus $55 Million Interest: Contractual Counter-Claim Withdrawn as Disputes Come to Close’, IA (Investment Arbitration) Reporter, 1(4), 1 July, available online at www.iareporter.com (accessed 4 January 2009).Google Scholar
Japan External Trade Organization (JETRO), ‘Japanese Trade and Investment Statistics’, available online at www.jetro.go.jp (accessed 1 September 2010).Google Scholar
Japan Times (2004), ‘Asia Takes a Historic Step’, The Japan Times, 4 December.Google Scholar
Jayasuriya, K. (1999), ‘Introduction: A Framework for the Analysis of Legal Institutions in East Asia’, Law, Capitalism, and Power in Asia: The Rule of Law and Legal Institutions, London: Routledge: 1–27.Google Scholar
Jones, D. M. and Smith, L. R. (2007), ‘Constructing Communities: The Curious Case of East Asian Regionalism’, Review of International Studies, 33: 165–186.Google Scholar
Kahler, M. (2000), ‘Legalization as Strategy: The Asia-Pacific Case’, International Organization, 54: 549–571.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katzenstein, P. J. (2005), A World of Regions: Asia and Europe in the American Imperium, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Kawai, M. (2004), ‘Regional Economic Integration and Cooperation in East Asia’, Paper prepared for the Experts’ Seminar on the Impact and Coherence of OECD Country Policies on Asian Developing Economies, Policy Research Institute of the Japanese Ministry of Finance and the OECD Secretariat, Paris, France, 10–11 June.Google Scholar
Kawai, M. (2008), ‘Evolving Regional Financial Architecture in East Asia’, Research Policy Brief 25, ADB Institute, February.Google Scholar
Kawai, M. and Wignaraja, G. (2007), ‘ASEAN+3 or ASEAN+6: Which Way Forward?’, Paper presented at the Conference on Multilateralising Regionalism, Sponsored by the WTO and CEPR, Geneva, Switzerland, 10–12 September.Google Scholar
Kawai, M. and Wignaraja, G. (2010), ‘Free Trade Agreements in East Asia: A Way toward Trade Liberalization?’, ADB Briefs No. 1 (June).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, E. M. and Mah, J. S. (2006), ‘Patterns of South Korea's Foreign Direct Investment Flows into China’, Asian Survey, 46: 881–897.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kumar, N. (2007), ‘Investment Provisions in Regional Trading Arrangements in Asia’, in ESCAP, Toward Coherent Policy Frameworks: Understanding Trade and Investment Linkages, Studies in Trade and Investment, No. 62, New York: United Nations, pp. 1–25.Google Scholar
Lo, Chang-fa (2008), ‘A Comparison of BIT and the Investment Chapter of Free Trade Agreement from Policy Perspective’, Asian Journal of WTO and International Health Law and Policy, 3: 147–170.Google Scholar
Lu, Jianren (2009), ‘East Asia FTA, A Good Thing that Doesn't Come Easy’, People's Daily Online, 30 October, available online at english.peopledaily.com (accessed 21 June 2011).Google Scholar
Mahbubani, K. (2008), The New Asian Hemisphere: The Irresistable Shift of Global Power to the East, New York, NY: PublicAffairs.Google Scholar
Marukawa, T. (2009), ‘Regionalism and Nationalism in the Information Technology Industry: A Comparison of East Asia and Europe’, in Nakamura, Tamio (ed.), East Asian Regionalism from a Legal Perspective: Current Features and a Vision for the Future, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 25–42.Google Scholar
Ministry of Commerce (MOFCOM) (2011a), ‘Statistics of China's Absorption of FDI from January to December 2010’, 27 January 2011, available online at english.mofcom.gov.cn (accessed 22 May 2011).Google Scholar
Ministry of Commerce (MOFCOM) (2011b), ‘China's Overseas Direct Investment Statistics 2005’, 24 July 2006, available online at english.mofcom.gov.cn (accessed 1 June 2011).Google Scholar
Ministry of Commerce (MOFCOM) (2011c), ‘Statistics of China's Non-Financial Foreign Direct Investment in 2010’, 28 January 2011, available online at english.mofcom.gov.cn (accessed 1 June 2011).Google Scholar
Ministry of Commerce and Industry, ‘FDI Statistics: India Fact Sheet – December 2010’, Department of Industrial Policy & Promotion, 17 February 2011, available online at dipp.nic.in (accessed 20 June 2011).Google Scholar
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA), ‘Japan–China–ROK Trilateral Cooperation’, available online at www.mofa.go.jp (accessed 17 May 2011).Google Scholar
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (MOFAT), ‘Countries and Regions’ with focus on China, Japan, ASEAN, and the United States’, available online at www.mofat.go.kr (accessed 1 September 2010).Google Scholar
Ministry of Knowledge Economy (MKE), ‘Key Figures: FDI by Country (2010)’, available online at www.mke.go.kr (accessed 1 June 2011).Google Scholar
Muchlinkski, P. (2008), ‘Policy Issues’, in Muchlinski, P., Ortino, F., and Schreuer, C., The Oxford Handbook of Interantional Investment Law, New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 3–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munakata, N. (2006), Transforming East Asia: The Evolution of Regional Economic Integration, Washington, DC: Brookings Insitution Press/RIETI.Google Scholar
Murthy, R. (2011), ‘India's FDI Takes a Hammering’, Asia Times, 24 February, available online at www.atimes.com (accessed 20 June 2011).Google Scholar
Nakagawa, J. (2007), ‘No More Negotiated Deals? Settlement of Trade and Investment Disputes in East Asia’, Journal of International Economic Law, 10: 837–867.Google Scholar
Newcombe, A. and Paradell, L. (2009), Law and Practice of Investment Treaties: Standards of Investment, The Netherlands: Kluwer Law International.Google Scholar
Nottage, L. and Weeramantry, J. R. (2009), ‘Investment Arbitration for Japan and Asia: Five Perspectives on Law and Practice’, Paper for Panel at the Asian Society of International Law Conference, Tokyo, 1–2 August 2009: 1–12.Google Scholar
OECD (1995a), OECD Begins Negotiations on a Multilateral Agreement on Investment, SG/Press (95)65, 27 September, available online at www.oecd.org (accessed 11 June 2006).Google Scholar
OECD (1995b), A Multilateral Agreement on Investment – Report by the Committee on International Investment and Multinational Enterprises (CIME)/ and the Committee on Capital Movements and Invisible Transactions (CMIT), OECD DAFFE/CMIT/CIME(95)13/FINAL, 5 May, available online at www.oecd.org (accessed 11 June 2006).Google Scholar
OECD (1998a), The Multilateral Agreement on Investment – Draft Consolidated Text, OECD DAFFE/MAI(98)7/Rev1, 22 April, available online at www.oecd.org (accessed 11 June 2006).Google Scholar
OECD (1998b), Ministerial Statement on the Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI), 28 April 1998, available online at www.oecd.org (accessed 11 June 2006).Google Scholar
OECD (2002), OECD Published Documents Relating to 1995/1998 MAI Negotiations, 19 February, available online at www.oecd.org (accessed 19 June 2010).Google Scholar
Office for National Statistics (2010), ‘Statistical Bulletin: Foreign Direct Investment 2009’, 9 December 2010, available online at www.statistics.gov.uk (accessed 12 June 2011).Google Scholar
Pekkanen, S. M. (2008), Japan's Aggressive Legalism: Law and Foreign Trade Politics Beyond the WTO, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pekkanen, S. M. (2010), ‘Asianism Rising: Assessing China–Japan–Us Dynamics in Regional Trade and Investment Realities’, in Curtis, G., Kokubun, R., and Wang, J. (eds.), Getting the Triangle Straight: Managing China–Japan–Us Relations, Tokyo: JCIE, pp. 191–215.Google Scholar
Pekkanen, S. M. (2011), ‘The Socialization of China, Japan, and Korea (CJK) in International Economic Law: Assessment and Implications’, Proceedings of the 104th Annual Meeting of the American Society of International Law: International Law in a Time of Change, March 2010, Washington, DC, pp. 24–27.Google Scholar
Pekkanen, S. M., Gao, H., and Ahn, D. (2009), ‘From Rule-Takers, Shakers to Makers: Assessing the Socialization of China, Japan, and Korea in International Economic Law’, Paper presented at the Second Biennial General Conference of the Asian Society of International Law, 1–2 August 2009, Tokyo.Google Scholar
Pekkanen, S. M., Solis, M., and Katada, S. N. (2007), ‘Trading Gains for Control: International Trade Forums and Japanese Economic Diplomacy’, International Studies Quarterly, 51: 945–970.Google Scholar
Pempel, T. J. (2005), ‘Introduction: Emerging Webs of Regional Connectedness’, in Pempel, T. J., Remapping East Asia: The Construction of a Region, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, pp. 1–28.Google Scholar
Rajan, R. and Hattari, R. (2009), ‘What Explains Intra-Asian FDI Flows?; Do Distance and Trade Matter?’, Economics Bulletin, 29: 122–128.Google Scholar
Ravenhill, J. (2001), APEC and the Construction of Pacific Rim Regionalism, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ravenhill, J. (2004), ‘The New Bilateralism in the Asia-Pacific’, in Jayasuriya, Kanishka (ed.), Asian Regional Governance: Crisis and Change, New York, NY: RoutledgeCurzon, pp. 61–81.Google Scholar
Ravenhill, J. (2010a), ‘The Political Economy of Asian Regionalism’, Asian Development Bank (ADB) Working Paper Series on Regional Economic Integration, No. 57 (August).Google Scholar
Ravenhill, J. (2010b), ‘The “New East Asian Regionalism”: A Political Domino Effect’, Review of International Political Economy, 17: 178–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salidjanova, N. (2011), ‘Going Out: An Overview of China's Outward Foreign Direct Investment’, US–China Economic and Security Review Commission, USCC Staff Research Report, 30 March 2011: 1–38.Google Scholar
Sato, Y. (2011), ‘Substituting Multilateralism, Guiding Trilateralism: The Japan–ROK Investment Agreement in the Growing East Asian Regionalism’, in Söderberg, Marie (ed.), Changing Power Relations in Northeast Asia: Implications for Relations Between Japan and South Korea, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 138–153.Google Scholar
Sauve, P. (2007), ‘Investment Regulation through Trade Agreements: Lessons from Asia’, in ESCAP, Toward Coherent Policy Frameworks: Understanding Trade and Investment Linkages, Studies in Trade and Investment, No. 62, New York: United Nations, pp. 27–66.Google Scholar
Shen, W. (2011), ‘The Good, the Bad or the Ugly? A Critique of the Decision on Jurisdiction and Competence’, Tza Yap Shum v. The Republic of Peru’, Chinese Journal of International Law, 10: 55–95.Google Scholar
Sidley Austin LLP (2009), ‘International Investment Update: New Protections for ASEAN Investors’, 1 April, available online at www.sidley.com (accessed 11 May 2011).Google Scholar
Slater, M. D. (2009), The Energy Charter Treaty: A Brief Introduction to Its Scope and Initial Arbitral Awards, 13 May, Cleary Gottlieb, pp. 1–30.Google Scholar
Smith, G. (2010), ‘Chinese Bilateral Investment Treaties: Restrictions on International Arbitration’, Arbitration, 76: 58–69.Google Scholar
Solis, M., Stallings, B., and Katada, S. N. (eds.) (2009), Competitive Regionalism: FTA Diffusion in the Pacific Rim, New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Tobin, J. L. and Busch, M. L. (2010), ‘A BIT Is Better Than a Lot: Bilateral Investment Treaties and Preferential Trade Agreements’, World Politics, 62: 1–42.Google Scholar
Uetake, K. (2011), ‘East Asian Giants Move Closer on FTA’, The Daily Yomiuri, 24 May, available online at www.yomiuri.co.jp (accessed 20 June 2011).Google Scholar
UN Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) (2010), ‘Briefing paper 2010: Foreign Direct Investment in Latin America and the Caribbean’, ECLAC, United Nations, New York and Geneva.Google Scholar
UNCTAD (2005), Occasional Note: Many BITs Have Yet to Enter Into Force, UNCTAD/WEB/ITE/IIA/2005/10, New York and Geneva: United Nations.Google Scholar
UNCTAD (2006), Investment Provisions in Economic Integration Agreements, New York and Geneva: United Nations.Google Scholar
UNCTAD (2009), Recent Developments in International Investment Agreements (2008–June 2009), IIA Investment Monitor No. 3, UNCTAD/WEB/DIAE/IA/2009/8, New York and Geneva: United Nations.Google Scholar
UNCTAD (2010a), World Investment Report 2010, New York and Geneva: United Nations.Google Scholar
UNCTAD (2010b), ‘Regional Trends: South, East and South-East Asia’, Division on Investment and Enterprise, 22 July 2010, available online at www.unctad.org (accessed 12 May 2011).Google Scholar
UNCTAD (2010c), ‘Country Fact Sheet: India’, 22 July 2010, available online at www.unctad.org (accessed 20 June 2011).Google Scholar
US Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA), ‘International economic Accounts: International Investment Position’, available online at www.bea.gov (accessed 11 June 2011).Google Scholar
US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), ‘Country Comparisons (based on 2010 year end stocks)’, The World Factbook, available online at www.cia.gov (accessed 12 June 2011).Google Scholar
USTR, ‘Positive Outcome from Fourth Round of Trans-Pacific Partnership Negotiations’, 12 December 2010, available online at www.ustr.gov (accessed 20 January 2011).Google Scholar
Wallace, W. (1995), ‘Regionalism in Europe: Model or Exception?’, in Fawcett, Louise and Hurrell, Andrew (eds.), Regionalism in World Politics: Regional Organization and International Order, New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 201–227.Google Scholar
Wu, Friedrich, Siaw, Poa Tiong, Sia, Yeo Han, and Keong, Puah Kok (2002), ‘Foreign Direct Investments to China and Southeast Asia: Has ASEAN Been Losing Out?’, Economic Survey of Singapore (Third Quarter): 96–115.Google Scholar
WTO (1996a), Ministerial Declaration – Adopted on 13 December 1996, WT/Min(96)/DEC, 18 December, Singapore, available online at www.wto.org (accessed 18 January 2011).Google Scholar
WTO (1996b), Brazil – Certain Automotive Investment Measures, WT/DS51 (30 July 1996), available online at www.wto.org (accessed 18 January 2010).Google Scholar
WTO (1996c), Indonesia – Certain Measures Affecting the Automobile Industry, WT/DS55 (4 October 1996), available online at www.wto.org (accessed 18 January 2010).Google Scholar
WTO (1998), Canada – Certain Measures Affecting the Automotive Industry, WT/DS139 (3 July 1998), available online at www.wto.org (accessed 18 January 2010).Google Scholar
WTO (2001), Ministerial Declaration – Adopted on 14 November 2001, WTO WT/MIN(01)/DEC/1, 20 November, Doha, available online at www.wto.org (accessed 18 January 2011).Google Scholar
WTO (2003a), Ministerial Statement – Adopted on 14 September 2003, WTO WT/Min(03)/20, 23 September, Cancun, available online at www.wto.org (accessed 18 January 2011).Google Scholar
WTO (2003b), ‘Communication from Canada, Costa Rica and Korea’, Negotiating a Multilateral Framework on Investment in the WTO, WT/WGTI/W/162, 5 June, available online at www.wto.org (accessed 18 January 2011).Google Scholar
WTO (2004), Doha Work Programme: Decision Adopted by the General Council on 1 August 2004, WT/L/579, 2 August, available online at www.wto.org (accessed 18 January 2011).Google Scholar
WTO (2010), Canada – Certain Measures Affecting the Automotive Industry, WT/DS139 (3 July 1998), available online at www.wto.org (accessed 18 January 2010).Google Scholar
WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures, available online at www.wto.org (accessed 18 January 2011).Google Scholar
WTO General Agreement on Trade in Services, available online at www.wto.org (accessed 18 January 2011).Google Scholar
WTO ‘Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs)’, RTA Database, available online at www.wto.org (accessed 1 September 2010).Google Scholar
WTO ‘Dispute Settlement: Disputes by Agreement’, available online at www.wto.org (accessed 20 June 2011).Google Scholar
Xinhua (2010), ‘Backgrounder: Trilateral Meetings of Leaders of China, Japan, South Korea’, Xinhua, 29 May 2010, available online at news.xinhuanel.com (accessed 8 September 2010).Google Scholar
Xinhua (2011a), ‘Chinese Official Proposes Immediate Start of East Asia FTA Talks’, 2 March, available online at news.xinhuanet.com (accessed 21 June 2011).Google Scholar
Xinhua (2011b), ‘East Asia Economic Integration to be Sped Up’, 3 March, available online at news.xinhuanet.com (accessed 21 June 2011).Google Scholar
Xinhua (2011c), ‘China Proposes Immediate Start of East Asia FTA Talks’, 2 March, available online at news.xinhuanel.com (accessed 6 June 2011).Google Scholar
Xinhua (2011), ‘China, Japan, S. Korea Urge Further Efforts for Trilateral Investment Framework’, Xinhua, 24 April 2011, available online at news.xinhuanel.com (accessed 17 May 2011).Google Scholar
Yoshimatsu, Hidetaka (2008), The Political Economy of Regionalism in East Asia: Integrative Explanation for Dynamics and Challenges, London: Palgrave MacMillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zakaria, F. (2008), The Post-America World, New York, NY: Norton.Google Scholar
Zhao, Hong (2011), ‘The Expansion of Outward FDI: A Comparative Study of China and India’, China: An International Journal, 9: 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar