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HOPE AND MEMORY IN THE THOUGHT OF JUDITH SHKLAR*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 September 2011

KATRINA FORRESTER*
Affiliation:
King's College, Cambridge E-mail: kf267@cam.ac.uk

Abstract

Current interpretations of the political theory of Judith Shklar focus to a disabling extent on her short, late article “The Liberalism of Fear” (1989); commentators take this late essay as representative of her work as a whole and thus characterize her as an anti-totalitarian, Cold War liberal. Other interpretations situate her political thought alongside followers of John Rawls and liberal political philosophy. Challenging the centrality of fear in Shklar's thought, this essay examines her writings on utopian and normative thought, the role of history in political thinking and her notions of ordinary cruelty and injustice. In particular, it shifts emphasis away from an exclusive focus on her late writings in order to consider works published throughout her long career at Harvard University, from 1950 until her death in 1992. By surveying the range of Shklar's critical standpoints and concerns, it suggests that postwar American liberalism was not as monolithic as many interpreters have assumed. Through an examination of her attitudes towards her forebears and contemporaries, it shows why the dominant interpretations of Shklar—as anti-totalitarian émigré thinker, or normative liberal theorist—are flawed. In fact, Shklar moved restlessly between these two categories, and drew from each tradition. By thinking about both hope and memory, she bridged the gap between two distinct strands of postwar American liberalism.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2011

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References

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42 Shklar, “Ideology Hunting: The Case of James Harrington”, in idem, Political Thought and Political Thinkers, 235.

43 Cf. e.g., Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr, The Politics of Hope (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode Ltd, 1964)Google Scholar. See also Shklar's review of Schlesinger's The Cycles of American History: Judith Shklar, “Keeping the Founding Fathers’ Promises”, Times Literary Supplement, 13 March 1987, 267–8.

44 Shklar, “The Political Theory of Utopia”, 172.

45 Ibid., 164, original emphasis.

46 Ibid., 166–7.

47 Judith Shklar, “Hannah Arendt's Triumph”, New Republic, 27 Dec. 1975, 10.

48 Shklar, “The Political Theory of Utopia”, 166.

49 Shklar, Judith, “Foreword”, in Wolf Lepenies, Melancholy and Society (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), viiGoogle Scholar.

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53 Shklar, Political Theory and Ideology, 18. Shklar claimed that Popper's “medieval nominalism would make the writing of any sort of history impossible”. Shklar, “Ideology Hunting”, 240 n. 80.

54 Allen, Jonathan, “Liberalism for Grown Ups”, Government and Opposition 33 (1998), 548Google Scholar.

55 On the problem of causally relating totalitarian ideology to antecedent political thought, Shklar follows the discussion in Friedrich and Brzezinski, Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy, 75–8, 80–88.

56 Popper, Open Society, 56. Shklar, Judith, Freedom and Independence: A Study of the Political Ideas of Hegel's Phenomenology of Mind (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), xivGoogle Scholar.

57 Shklar, Legalism, 27.

58 Shklar, Political Theory and Ideology, 19.

59 Ibid., 1.

60 Ibid., 15; Hartz, Louis, The Liberal Tradition in America (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1955)Google Scholar.

61 Shklar, “Ideology Hunting”, 207. In this instance, Shklar's usage of the term “historicist” follows Popper's. Popper, The Poverty of Historicism, 3.

62 Shklar, Political Theory and Ideology, 13.

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67 Shklar, “Hawthorne in Utopia”, 35.

68 Shklar, “Injustice, Injury and Inequality”, 14. Other political theorists and historians have dated the revival of political theory differently—or have argued that it never went away. Cf. e.g., Laslett, Peter and Runciman, W. G., eds., Philosophy, Politics and Society (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1967), 5, 1Google Scholar; Gunnell, John, Imagining the American Polity: Political Science and the Discourse of Democracy (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004), chap. 6Google Scholar; Rogers M. Smith, “Still Blowing in the Wind”, in Bender and Schorske, American Academic Culture in Transformation, 271–305; Adcock, Robert and Bevir, Mark, “The Remaking of Political Theory”, in Adcock, R., Bevir, M. and Stimson, S., eds., Modern Political Science: Anglo-American Exchanges Since 1880 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007), 209–33Google Scholar; Ball, Terence, “An Ambivalent Alliance: Political Science and American Democracy”, in Farr, James, Dryzek, John and Leonard, Stephen, eds., Political Science in History: Research Programs and Political Traditions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 4166Google Scholar.

69 Shklar, “What is the Use of Utopia?”, 188.

70 Ibid., 186.

71 Ibid., 188.

72 Rawls, John, The Law of Peoples (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 11Google Scholar.

73 Shklar, “What Is the Use of Utopia?”, 190.

74 Judith Shklar, “Jean d'Alembert and the Rehabilitation of History”, in idem, Political Thought and Political Thinkers, 308, 306.

75 For what little there is, see After Utopia, 65–80, 124–34, 164–85; idem, “Learning without Knowing”, in idem, Political Thought and Political Thinkers, 105–31.

76 Shklar, “The Liberalism of Fear”, 9.

77 On history in Rawls see Mueller, Jan-Werner, “Rawls, Historian: Remarks on Political Liberalism's “Historicism”, in Revue internationale de philosophie 60 (2006), 327–39Google Scholar; On Rawls's historical turn as exemplary of the increasing pervasiveness of contextualism in political theory more broadly see Kloppenberg, James T., “Why History Matters to Political Theory”, in idem, The Virtues of Liberalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 157Google Scholar.

78 Judith Shklar, “Subversive Genealogies”, in idem, Political Thought and Political Thinkers, 133, 141.

79 Ibid., 149.

80 Ibid., 154.

81 Judith Shklar, “Rethinking the Past”, in idem, Political Thought and Political Thinkers, 353.

82 Ibid., 360.

83 Ibid., 358.

84 Judith Shklar, “Hannah Arendt as Pariah”, in idem, Political Thought and Political Thinkers, 366.

85 Ibid., 371.

86 Judith Shklar, review of Arendt, Hannah, Between Past and Future, History and Theory 2 (1963), 286Google Scholar.

87 Judith Shklar and Julian Franklin, review of Skinner, Quentin, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, Political Theory 7 (1979), 549Google Scholar; Shklar, “The Political Theory of Utopia”, 172.

88 Judith Shklar, review of Taylor, Charles, Sources of the Self, Political Theory 19 (1991), 105Google Scholar.

89 Ibid., 106.

90 Shklar, “Learning without Knowing”, 108.

91 Ibid., 109. Shklar accused Ronald Dworkin's and Michael Walzer's works of similar flaws. Shklar, review of Dworkin, Ronald, Law's Empire, American Political Science Review 8 (1987), 261–2Google Scholar; Shklar, “The Work of Michael Walzer”, in idem, Political Thought and Political Thinkers, 381, 385.

92 Cf. Adcock and Bevir, “The Remaking of Political Theory”, 220 n. 30. Shklar's appreciation for contextualist political thought is noted by Adcock and Bevir, who write that “Shklar's praise of [Quentin] Skinner as an antidote to the tropes of Strauss, Arendt and Wolin” suggests that she saw Skinner's work as a continuation of the “ideas and institutions” tradition of political thought practised by her own teachers at Harvard, Hartz and Friedrich. However, Adcock and Bevir seem to mistake Shklar's reference, since the older tradition of political thought to which she refers is actually “intellectual history . . . as it used to be practiced in the earlier years of this century in Germany and France”: Shklar, review of Quentin Skinner, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, 549. However, their broader point, that Shklar saw Skinner's historicism as a return to traditionalist histories of political thought that were preferable to the work of Strauss, Arendt and Wolin, is correct. Cf. Shklar's equation of “‘speech act’ analysis” with “common sense” in Judith Shklar, “Squaring the Hermeneutic Circle”, in idem, Political Thought and Political Thinkers, 81.

93 Shklar, review of Quentin Skinner, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, 551.

94 Judith Shklar, review of Isaiah Berlin, Against the Current, New Republic, 5 April 1980, 33.

95 Kerry Whiteside, “Justice Uncertain: Judith Shklar on Liberalism, Skepticism and Equality”, Polity 31 (1999), 501–24.

96 Rosenblum, “The Democracy of Everyday Life”, 30; Allen, “Liberalism for Grown Ups”, 547.

97 Shklar, “Learning without Knowing”, 106.

98 Ibid., 109.

99 Shklar, “Jean d'Alembert and the Rehabilitation of History”, 310–11.

100 Ibid., 308.

101 Ibid., 309.

102 Shklar, “Redeeming American Political Theory”, in idem, Redeeming American Political Thought, 106.

103 Ibid., 91.

104 Shklar, “Ideology Hunting”, 234.

105 Shklar, “Alexander Hamilton and the Language of Political Science”, in idem, Redeeming American Political Thought, 6.

106 Shklar, “Democratic Customs”, in idem, Redeeming American Political Thought, 190.

107 Smith, Rogers M., “Judith Shklar and the Pleasures of American Political Thought”, Yale Journal of Law and the Humanities 5 (1993), 187Google Scholar; Shklar, “Redeeming American Political Theory”, 91. Her first publication that dealt in any sustained way with the history of American thought (as opposed to contemporary American legal and political theory) was “The Education of Henry Adams”, Daedalus 103 (1974), 59–66.

108 Shklar, Judith, American Citizenship: The Quest for Inclusion (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1991), 13, 1Google Scholar; idem, “An Education for America”, 6; idem, “Negative Liberty, Positive Liberty in the United States”, in idem, Redeeming American Political Thought, 113. In these writings Shklar rejected the intellectual agenda set by the legacy of Hartz. For differing assessments of the impact of that legacy on the writing of the history of political thought and on contemporary political science see e.g. Kloppenberg, James T., “Review: In Retrospect: Louis Hartz's ‘The Liberal Tradition in America’”, Reviews in American History 29 (2001), 460–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Cf. Smith, Rogers M., “Beyond Tocqueville, Myrdal, and Hartz: The Multiple Traditions in America”, American Political Science Review 87 (1993), 549–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

109 Shklar, American Citizenship, 3. Seyla Benhabib writes, “In some ways her last book . . . is a belated answer to Arendt's On Revolution.” Benhabib, “Judith Shklar's Dystopic Liberalism”, 58.

110 Arendt, Hannah, The Human Condition (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1998), 201CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

111 Judith Shklar, “Democracy and the Past”, in idem, Redeeming American Political Thought, 174, 186.

112 Judith Shklar, “A New Constitution for a New Nation”, in idem, Redeeming American Political Thought, 165.

113 Allen, JonathanThe Place of Negative Morality in Political Theory”, Political Theory 29 (2001), 337–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

114 Shklar, Men and Citizens, 33.

115 The events of the 1960s and 1970s are also likely to have shaped Shklar's thinking on this subject, but she did not write any sustained commentary on these events. In fact, during this period she turned to more historical work, producing her monographs on Rousseau and Hegel. Although a champion of the civil rights movement, Shklar was no supporter of the New Left. “I do not remember the sixties kindly,” she wrote. See Shklar, “A Life of Learning”, 268. For her brief comments on the Students for a Democratic Society cf. Shklar, Ordinary Vices, 134. For her involvement in the Harvard protests about “2–S deferments” for students in 1966–7, cf. Pogge, Thomas, John Rawls: His Life and Theory of Justice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 21CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

116 This paper was first presented at the Lionel Trilling Seminar at Columbia University (2 April 1981). See Shklar, Judith, “Putting Cruelty First”, Daedalus 111 (1982), 1727Google Scholar.

117 Shklar, “Injustice, Injury and Inequality”, 15; idem, The Faces of Injustice (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), 120. Cf. Bernard Yack, “Putting Injustice First: An Alternative Approach to Liberal Pluralism”, Social Research 66/4 (1999), 1114.

118 Shklar, “The Liberalism of Fear”, 11.

119 Ibid., 9.

120 Shklar, “Injustice, Injury and Inequality”, 24.

121 Shklar, “A Life of Learning”, 274, 267.

122 See Cane, Peter, ed., The Hart–Fuller Debate in the Twenty-First Century (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2010)Google Scholar.

123 Shklar, Legalism, 34.

124 Ibid., 35. Shklar's constitutionalist critique of formalism follows Friedrich, Carl, The Philosophy of Law in Historical Perspective (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1958), 165–77Google Scholar.

125 Shklar, Legalism, Preface, xi.

126 Shklar, “A Life of Learning”, 272.

127 Benhabib, “Judith Shklar's Dystopic Liberalism”, 57.

128 Shklar, The Faces of Injustice, 8.

129 Ibid., 28.

130 Ibid., 49.

131 Shklar, “The Work of Michael Walzer”, 377.

132 Shklar, “A Life of Learning”, 279.

133 Judith Shklar, “Hannah Arendt's Triumph”, New Republic, 27 Dec. 1975, 9.

134 Shklar, Ordinary Vices, 17.

135 Ibid., 19

136 Shklar, Legalism, 223.

137 Shklar, Ordinary Vices, 17.

138 Ibid., 35

139 Arendt, Hannah, The Origins of Totalitarianism (Cleveland, OH: The World Publishing Company, 1958), 459Google Scholar.

140 Robin, Fear, 151, 144. In his otherwise astute account, Corey Robin ignores the important distinction between normalized cruelty and radical evil when he renamed the liberalism of fear the “liberalism of terror”.

141 Shklar, “Hannah Arendt as Pariah”, 368.

142 Villa, Dana, Politics, Philosophy, Terror: Essays on the thought of Hannah Arendt (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), 202Google Scholar.

143 Judith Shklar, “Torturers”, review of Elain Scarry, The Body in Pain, London Review of Books, 9 Oct. 1986, 26–7.

144 Dunn, “Hope over Fear”, 52.

145 Geuss, Raymond, “Neither History nor Praxis’, in idem, Outside Ethics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 31Google Scholar.

146 Shklar, Ordinary Vices, 245.

147 Dunn, “Hope over Fear”, 47.

148 Shklar, “Review, Against the Current”, 34.

149 Allen, “Liberalism for Grown Ups”, 547.

150 Bernard Yack, “Introduction”, in Yack, Liberalism without Illusions, 9.

151 Shklar, “Injustice, Injury, Inequality”, 18.

152 Rosenblum, “The Democracy of Everyday Life”, 40.

153 Shklar, Legalism, 5; idem, “Injustice, Injury, Inequality”, 28.

154 Ibid., 25.

155 Ibid., 25.

156 See e.g. Shklar, “The Liberalism of Fear”, 17; idem, “Injustice, Injury and Inequality”, 26–7; idem, “Obligation, Loyalty, Exile”, in idem, Political Thought and Political Thinkers, 41.

157 Judith Shklar, “Thinking about Bonsai Trees”, London Review of Books, 18 April 1985, 12–13.

158 Shklar, “A Life of Learning”, 273.

159 Shklar, “Torturers”, 27.