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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 03 August 2010
Freedom from fear, expressly recognized in the foundational human rights treaties, has been forgotten in human rights discourse. Fear can have profound behavioural impacts. Without recognition of the importance of freedom from fear, the fulfilment of many human rights is compromised, particularly physical security. Politico-legal thought, from Montesquieu and Blackstone, has long identified the significance of security of the person and the tension between liberty and security. Comparative exploration of contemporary case law reveals disparate approaches to the recognition of security of the person as an individual right which the State is obliged to protect. Increasing the salience of security of the person and the dimension of freedom from fear in human rights decision making raises the difficult issue of balancing conflicting rights.
1 The Four Freedoms Speech and the Atlantic Charter are available in full or in extract in numerous sources. See eg, J MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc, 1970) 34–5, 130.
2 See, eg, D Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War 1929–1945 (OUP, Oxford, 1999) esp 469–70.
3 See Shulman, MR, ‘The Four Freedoms: Good Neighbours Make Good Law and Good Policy in a Time of Insecurity’ (2008) 77 Fordham Law Review 555Google Scholar.
4 See generally Johnson, M Glen, ‘The Contributions of Eleanor and Franklin Roosevelt to the Development of International Protection for Human Rights’ (1987) 9 Human Rights Quarterly 19CrossRefGoogle Scholar; MA Glendon, A World Made New: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Random House, London, 2001).
5 See Truman Library, To Secure These Freedoms: The Report of the President's Committee on Civil Rights (1947).
6 See AW Brian Simpson, Human Rights and the End of Empire: Britain and the Genesis of the European Convention (OUP, Oxford, 2001).
7 See Spigelman, JJ, ‘Blackstone, Burke, Bentham and the Human Rights Act 2004’ (2005) 26 Australian Bar Review 1Google Scholar, reprinted in T Castle (ed), Speeches of a Chief Justice: James Spigelman 1998–2008 (CS2N Publishing, 2008).
8 Genesis 3.10. I owe this example to C Robin, Fear: The History of a Political Idea (OUP, Oxford, 2004) 1.
9 See generally Simpson (n 6) 172–173.
10 B Saul, Defining Terrorism in International Law (OUP, Oxford, 2006) 29.
11 See Schauer, F, ‘Fear, Risk and the First Amendment: Unravelling the “Chilling Effect”’ (1978) 58 Boston University Law Review 685Google Scholar.
12 See, for example, GS Goodwin-Gill and J McAdam, The Refugee in International Law (3rd edn, Oxford University Press, 2007); R Germov and F Motta, Refugee Law in Australia (OUP, Oxford, 2003).
13 Baron de Montesquieu, The Spirit of Law) (vol 1, Law Book Exchange, 2005) Book XI Ch VI, 185.
14 ibid Book XII Ch 1, 224.
15 See A Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1976 edn) 156, 290; A Smith, The Wealth of Nations (1976 edn) 412.
17 See E Rothschild, Economic Sentiments: Adam Smith, Condorcet, and the Enlightenment (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 2001) 12–15.
18 See generally Rothschild, E, ‘What is Security’ (Summer 1995) 124 Daedaleus 53Google Scholar.
19 Sir W Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England (18th edn, 1829) vol 1 [129].
20 See PO Carrese, The Cloaking of Power: Montesquieu, Blackstone, and the Rise of Judicial Activism (University of Chicago, Chicago, 2003) esp 117, 122, 126–128, 153–154.
21 Blackstone (n 19) 129.
22 ibid 131.
23 ibid 134 (emphasis added).
24 The text of art 9(1) reads: ‘Everyone has the right to liberty and security of person. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest or detention. No one shall be deprived of his liberty except on such grounds and in accordance with such procedure as are established by law’.
25 See eg, M Nowak, UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: CCPR Commentary (2nd edn NP Engel Publishers, Kehl am Rhein, 2005) 214.
26 The most comprehensive treatment, not yet published, is RL Powell, Security and the Right to Security of Person (DPhil Thesis, St Hilda's College, Oxford University, forthcoming 2010). (I am grateful to the author for providing me with this unpublished thesis). See also S Fredman, ‘The Positive Right to Security’ and L Lazarus, ‘Mapping the Right to Security’ in B Goold and L Lazarus (eds), Security and Human Rights (Hart Publishing, Oxford, 2007).
27 See Powell, R, ‘The Right to Security of Person in European Court of Human Rights Jurisprudence’ (2007) 6 European Human Rights Law Review 649Google Scholar; Nowak (n 25) 214; C Ovey and R White, Jacobs & White European Convention on Human Rights (3rd edn, OUP, Oxford, 2002)[most recent edition? No, please change to 4th edn, 2006] 103; R Clayton and H Tomlinson (eds), The Law of Human Rights (2nd edn, OUP, Oxford 2009) 628; East African Asians v United Kingdom (1981) 3 EHRR 76 (‘East African Asians’); Bozano v France (1986) 9 EHRR 297. Clayton and Tomlinson note there is only one early authority which suggested that ‘security of person’ had independent content: Kamma v Netherlands (1974) 18 YB 300.
29 See eg, East African Asians ibid 222; Kurt v Turkey (1999) 27 EHRR 373 at [122] (‘Kurt v Turkey’); X v United Kingdom (1981) 4 EHRR 188 at [43]; Mentes v Turkey (1997) 26 EHRR 595.
30 X v Ireland (1973) 16 YB 388.
31 See eg, Pretty v Director of Public Prosecutions and Secretary of State for the Home Department [2001] UKHL 61; [2002] 1 AC 800 23.
32 See Pretty v United Kingdom (2002) 35 EHRR 1.
33 M Macovei, Human Rights Handbook No 5: The Right to Liberty and Security of the Person: A Guide to the Implementation of Article 5 of the European Convention on Human Rights (2004) Council of Europe, 6. Others also emphasize that there is no duty to protect. See, eg, Clayton and Tomlinson supra (n 26) 628–629.
34 See eg, Kurt v Turkey supra; Cyprus v Turkey (2001) 35 EHRR 30; Bilgin v Turkey (2002) 35 EHRR 39; Tanis v Turkey (App No 65899/01) 2 August 2005; Ipek v Turkey (App No 2560/94) 17 May 2004.
35 See Powell (n 27) 8–9.
36 See eg, P van Dijk, F van Hoof, A van Rijn and L Zwaak (eds), Theory and Practice of the European Convention on Human Rights (4th edn, Intersentia, Mortsel, 2006) 457.
37 See R (on the application of Ullah) v Special Adjudicator [2004] UKHL 26; [2004] 2 AC 323. See generally Mance, J, ‘Opting into Community Law and Interpreting Convention Rights: Is the United Kingdom More or Less Committed?’ [2009] Public Law 544Google Scholar.
38 Delgado Paez v Columbia, 12 July 1990, No 195/85 [5.5].
39 See Chongwe v Zambia (Communication 821/1998) [5.3]; A Conte, S Davidson and R Burchill, Defining Civil and Political Rights: The Jurisprudence of the United Nations Human Rights Committee (2nd edn, Ashgate, Farnham, 2009) 116–17.
40 Jayawardene v Sri Lanka (Communication 916/2000) [7.3]. See S Joseph, J Schultz and M Castan, The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: Cases, Materials and Commentary (2nd edn, OUP, Oxford, 2004) 306.
42 See eg, Rubenfeld, J, ‘The Right of Privacy’ (1989) 102 Harvard Law Review 737CrossRefGoogle Scholar; WJ Cuddihy, The Fourth Amendment: Origins and Original Meaning 602–1791 (OUP, Oxford, 2009).
43 See Rubenfeld, J, ‘The End of Privacy’ (2008) 61 Stanford Law Review 101Google Scholar, esp 103–104.
44 See PW Hogg, Constitutional Law of Canada (5th edn, vol 2, Thomson Carswell, 2007) 367.
45 See eg, Gosselin v Quebec (Attorney General) [2002] 4 SCR 429.
46 R v Morgentaler [1988] 1 SCR 30.
47 Chaoulli v Quebec (Attorney General) [2005] 1 SCR 791 (‘Chaoulli’).
48 Rodriguez v British Columbia (Attorney General) [1993] 3 SCR 519.
49 See eg, Mills v The Queen [1986] 1 SCR 863,920; R v O'Connor [1995] 4 SCR 411 [111]; Chaoulli (n 46) [41], [116]–[119], [123], [205].
50 New Brunswick (Minister of Health and Community Service) v G (J) [1999] 3 SCR 46 (‘New Brunswick’); Winnipeg Child and Family Services v KLW [2000] 2 SCR 519.
51 See Blencoe v British Columbia (Human Rights Commission) [2000] 2 SCR 307.
52 See I Currie and J de Waal, The Bill of Rights Handbook (5th edn, JUTA and Company Ltd, Cape Town, 2005) 293.
53 ibid 304.
54 1996 (1) SA 984 (CC).
55 ibid 170.
56 See ibid 89 per Ackerman J quoting with approval at fn 120 commentary that: ‘liberty and security are the two sides of the same coin’.
57 ibid [209]–[210] per Mokgoro J.
58 ibid [254].
59 Carmichele v Minister of Safety and Security 2001 (4) SA 938 (CC).
60 S v Baloyi 2000 (2) SA 425 (CC) per Sachs J (‘Baloyi’).
61 Christian Education South Africa v Minister of Education 2000 (4) SA 757 (CC).
62 See Human Rights Consultation Committee, Rights, Responsibilities and Respect: The Report of the Human Rights Consultation Committee (2005) esp 43.
63 Explanatory Memorandum, Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Bill 2006 (Vic) at 16.
64 National Human Rights Consultation Committee, National Human Rights Consultation Report (2009) 369.
65 See generally A Mowbray, The Development of Positive Obligations under the European Convention on Human Rights by the European Court of Human Rights (Hart Publishing, Oxford, 2004); van Dijk, van Hoof, van Rijn and Zwaak (eds) (n 36). See also D Feldman, Civil Liberties and Human Rights in England and Wales (2nd edn, OUP, Oxford, 2002) 53–55.
66 See Feldman ibid 257–266; MC v Bulgaria (2005) 40 EHRR 20 esp [148]–[153].
67 Siliadin v France (2005) 43 EHRR 16.
68 See ibid fn 33.
69 See eg, Hirschl, R, ‘‘Negative’ Rights v ‘Positive’ Entitlements: A Comparative Study of Judicial Interpretations of Rights in an Emerging Neo-Liberal Economic Order’ (2000) 22 Human Rights Quarterly 1060CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Hirschl primarily focuses on social and economic rights as positive obligations.
70 See New Brunswick (n 50).
71 See Powell (n 27) 114.
72 See Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act 2006 (Vic) s 38; Human Rights Act 2004 (ACT) s 40B; National Human Rights Consultation Committee (n 64) 331–332.
73 See G Evans, The Responsibility to Protect: Ending Mass Atrocity Crimes Once and For All (Bookings Institution, Washington, DC, 2008).
74 See Chirwa, D Mzikenge, ‘The Doctrine of State Responsibility as a Potential Means of Holding Private Actors Accountable for Human Rights’ (2004) 5 Melbourne Journal of International Law 1Google Scholar.
75 See Fredman (n 26).
76 Lazarus (n 26) ‘Mapping the Right to Security’.
77 See Powell (n 27) 110–113.
78 See eg, the legislation considered by the High Court in Coleman v Power [2004] HCA 39; (2004) 220 CLR 1.
79 See eg, Thomas, D and Beasle, M, ‘Domestic Violence as a Human Rights Issue’ (1993) 15 Human Rights Quarterly 36CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
80 See, eg, R Jacobson ‘The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women’ in P Alston (ed) The United Nations and Human Rights: A Critical Appraisal (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1992); Donner, L, ‘Gender Bias in Drafting International Discrimination Conventions: The 1979 Women's Convention Compared with the 1965 Racial Convention’ (1994) 24 California Western International Law Journal 241Google Scholar.
81 See Cook, R, ‘Reservations of the Convention of the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women’ (1989–1990) 30 Virginia Journal of International Law 643Google Scholar.
82 See eg, Beane, D, ‘Human Rights in Transition—Freedom from Fear’ (2000) 6 Washington and Lee Race and Ethnic Ancestry Journal 1Google Scholar. See also Baloyi (n 59) [12]–[13] per Sachs J. See also the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1994, which defines ‘violence against women’ to encompass threats of gender based violence and coercion.
83 John Fairfax Publications Pty Ltd v Ryde Local Court [2005] NSWCA 101; (2005) 62 NSWLR 512 [20].
84 See Donovan, RJ, Patterson, D and Francas, M, ‘Targeting Male Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Violence: West Australia's ‘Freedom From Fear’ Campaign’ (1999) 5 Social Marketing Quarterly 128Google Scholar.
85 As suggested by Waldron, J, ‘Security and Liberty: The Imagery of Balance’ (2003) 11 Journal of Political Philosophy 191CrossRefGoogle Scholar esp 196–197.
86 See Berkey v Third Avenue Railway Company, 244 NY 84, 94–5 (1926).
87 National Human Rights Consultation Committee (n 64) 241–242.
88 ibid 374–375.
89 See the debate amongst Canadian scholars in the special issue ‘Charter Dialogue—Ten Years Later’' (2007) 35 Osgoode Hall Law Journal.
90 See Hunt, M, ‘The Human Rights Act and Legal Culture: The Judiciary and the Legal Profession’ (1999) 26 Journal of Law and Society 86CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 89.
91 Waldron (n 85) 198–199.
92 G Williams, The Case for an Australian Bill of Rights: Freedom in the War on Terror (UNSW Press, Sydney, 2004) 27.
93 Golder, B and Williams, G, ‘Balancing National Security and Human Rights: Assessing the Legal Response of Common Law Nations to the Threat of Terrorism’ (2006) 8 Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis 43, 51Google Scholar.
94 Luizzi, V, ‘Balancing of Interests in Courts’ (1980) 20 Jurimetrics Journal 373Google Scholar.
95 Bendix Autolite Corp v Midwesco Enterprises Inc, 486 US 888, 897 (1987). See generally Adler, John, ‘The Sublime and the Beautiful: Incommensurability and Human Rights’ [2006] Public Law 697Google Scholar.
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97 See A Ashworth, ‘Security, Terrorism and the Value of Human Rights’ in B Goold and L Lazarus (eds), Security and Human Rights (Hart Publishing, Oxford, 2007).
98 ibid 208.
99 Gottlieb, SE, ‘The Paradox of Balancing Significant Interests’ (1994) 45 Hastings Law Journal 825Google Scholar, 839, 850.
100 Waldron (n 85) 192–193.
101 See generally Mather, HS, ‘Law-making and Incommensurability’ (2002) 47 McGill Law Journal 345Google Scholar. See also Wright, R George, ‘The Role of Intuition in Judicial Decision-making’ (2005–2006) 42 Houston Law Review 1381Google Scholar.
102 See, eg, Aleinikoff, A, ‘Constitutional Law in the Age of Balancing’ (1987) 96 Yale Law Journal 943CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
103 See also Coffin, FM, ‘Judicial Balancing: The Protean Scales of Justice’ (1988) 63 New York University Law Review 16Google Scholar.
104 Marshall, G, ‘Things We Can Say About Rights’ [2001] Public Law 207Google Scholar, 209. See also Montague, P, ‘When Rights Conflict’ (2001) 7 Legal Theory 257CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
105 See Aleinikoff (n 102) 948. See also Butler, AS, ‘Limiting Rights’ (2002) 33 Victoria University of Wellington Law Review 113Google Scholar.
106 See eg, S Bronitt and B McSherry, Principles of Criminal Law (2nd edn, Law Book Co, 2005) esp 37–43, 874–846; S Bronitt, ‘Balancing Security and Liberty: Critical Perspectives on Terrorism Law Reform’ in M Gani and P Mathew (eds), Fresh Perspectives on the ‘War on Terror’ (ANU Press, Canberra, 2008).
107 See Ashworth (n 97) 208.
108 See GS Goodwin-Gill and J McAdam, The Refugee in International Law (3rd edn, OUP, Oxford, 2007) esp 63–64, 92; R Germov and F Motta, Refugee Law in Australia (OUP, Oxford, 2003) ch 6.
