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⁵ For different official interpretations, see “Measure to be taken to control the agitationfor the Protection of Kine” and enclosures, in India, Public and Judicial Papers, L/P/6/367, no. 257 of 1894. This file consists of the major reports from the various provinces thatwere effected by the anti-cow killing agitation.

⁶ McLane, John R., Indian Nationalism and the Early Congress (Princeton, 1977), 271–331.Google Scholar

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⁸ A. P. MacDonnell, Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, to A. Forbes, Commissioner ofPatna, 24 June 1893, in MacDonnell Papers, See also Ahmad, Qeyamuddin, “An Early Caseof Constitutional Agitation in Bihar (1892–1897), ” Indian Historical Records Commission Proceedings 32 (02. 1956), 71–77, on background of Shi'^c ah-Sunni disputes.Google Scholar

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¹⁰ See Holton, Robert J., “The Crowd in History: Some Problems of Theory and Method, ” Social History, 3 (05 1978), 219–33, for an excellent discussion of theliterature and the shortcomings.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹¹ See Tuan, Yi-Fu, “Sacred Space: Explorations of an Idea, ” in Dimensions of HumanGeography: Essays on Some Familiar and Neglected Themes, ed. Butzer, Karl W., Univer-sity of Chicago, Department of Geography, Research Paper no. 186, 1978, 84–99,Google Scholar and Ozouf, Mona, “Space and Time in the Festivals of the French Revolution, ” ComparativeStudies in Society and History 17 (07 1975), 372–84,Google Scholar for useful discussions of “sacredgeography.” Also, Hsieh, Winston, “Peasant Insurrection and the Marketing Hierarchy inthe Canton Delta, 1911, ” in Elvin, Mark and Skinner, G. William, ed. The Chinese CityBetween Two Worlds (Stanford, 1974), 119–41, on mobilization and marketing systems.Google Scholar

¹² For additional details, see my “Control and Conflict in an Agrarian Society: A Study ofSaran District. 1866–1920“ (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of Virginia, 1976, 79–132.Google Scholar

¹³ See my “The Agrarian Origins of Crime: A Study of Riots in Saran District, India, 1866–1920, “Journal of Social History 13 (Winter 1979), 289–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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¹⁵ Freitag, , “Community and Competition, ” 13.Google Scholar Also, Turner, Victor, Drama, Fields and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society (Ithaca, 1974), especially, 166–299. for adiscussion of “communitas, a spontaneously generated relationship between leveled and equal total and individuated human beings, stipped of structured attributes …“Google Scholar

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¹⁷ The district was overhwelmingly rural in the late nineteenth century. Less than 3percent of its population was urban-based. And of the twelve localities designated towns in1891. only Chapra (57.000), Siwan (17, 000) and Revelganj (13, 000) deserve theidentification. See my “Control and Conflict, ” 16–17.

¹⁸ Testimony of Nathuni the butcher in Trial of the Basantpur Riot Case in the Court of theSessions Judge of Saran, 1893 (Calcutta, 1894), 15. Crowd figures here and elsewhererepresent the lowest estimations.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Unless noted otherwise, the events leading up to Basantpur are reconstructed from thereports of the investigation by the magistrate; see Manisty, G. E. to Commissioner, no. 2622, 10 Oct. 1893, in Bengal Judicial Proceedings, Police Dept., Nov. 1894, nos. 31 and 33, respectively (hereafter cited as Manisty Report I & II).Google Scholar

²⁰ Testimony of Inspector Ghosal, Gyatri Prosunno. in Basantpur Trial, 36.Google Scholar

²¹ Ibid. 25. Pohari Baba. and Mohabir jee were important preachers; Kali, wife of Shivais a popular Goddess in Bihar.

²² Cited in ibid., 26.

²³ LeMesurier, H., Offg. Magistrate and Collector on special duty, to Cssner. of Patna. 3Nov. 1893. in Bengal Judicial Proceedings, Police Dept.. Nov. 1894. no. 36 (hereafterLeMesurier Report).Google Scholar

²⁴ Manisty Report I.

²⁵ Cited in Ibid. The advent of the rule of Ram, an incarnation of Vishnu, indicates thereturn of a Golden Age.

²⁶ Marindinto, C. R. GOB, 8Aug. 1900.Google Scholar Bengal Judicial Proceedings, 07 1900. 121. See also my Control and Conflict, “ 80–132 and Cohn, Bernard S.. “The British in Benares: ANineteenth Century Colonial Society, ” Comparative Studies in Society and History 4 (1961–1962). 169–99. for details on the enormous gulf that separated rulers and ruled.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁷ MacDonnell, to Forbes, A., Commissioner of Patna. 13 Sept. 1893. in MacDonnellPapers.Google Scholar

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³¹ Cotton, H. J. S., Chief Secretary, GOB, to Secretary, Government oflndia.no. 849–D, 28 Oct. 1893, in L/P/6/367, no. 257 of 1894, enclosure 6.Google Scholar

³² Manisty Report, I.

³³ Compiled from “Annual General Administration Report, Patna Division, ” for 1888–1889, 1889–1890, 1890–1891, 1891–1892. 1892–1893, in Bengal General (Misc.)Proceedings. Aug. 1889, 77; Dec. 1890, 352–53; Oct. 1891, 319: Dec. 1892, 538; and Dec.1893, 681–83, respectively.

³⁴ Purit and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (London, 1966), 114.Google Scholar

³⁵ See Prasad, Babu Mahadev, ed. Sanatan Arya Dharma Pracharini, 4th session (Patna, 1888). Also Jones, Kenneth, Arya Dharm: Hindu Consciousness in Nineteenth Punjab (Berkeley, 1976), 108–12, on Sanatan Dharma-Arya Samaj differences;Google Scholar and McLane, , Indian Nationalism, 276–94, on how “the cow became a basis for sentimental community fororthodox and reformist Hindus alike.”Google Scholar

³⁶ Lord Lansdowne to Secretary of State for India, 27 Dec. 1893, in Public and JudicialPapers, L/P/6/365, 1894.

³⁷ MacDonnell, A. P. to Forbes, A., Commissioner of Patna, 9 Nov. 1893, in MacDonnell Papers. See also “Memorand um to Secretary of the ‘Cow Memorial Fund' Society …, ”with Government of India to Secretary of State, 7 Jan. 1890, L/P/6/269, 1890, for theconfidential files on the important propagand ists of The Cow Protection Movement.Google Scholar

³⁸ Forbes, A., Commissioner of Patna, to Chief Secretary, GOB, 27 Oct. 1893, inL/P/6/365, no. 257, end. 7 (hereafter Forbes Report).Google Scholar

³⁹ Other officers were designated muharrirs (clerks), tahsildars (revenue collectors), jamadars (military officers), and piyadas (peons). See Ibid.

⁴⁰ Bayly, C. A., The Local Roots of Indian Politics; Allahabad, 1880–1920 (Oxford, 1975), 57.Google Scholar

⁴¹ “Anniversary of Chapra Gaurakshini Sabha, ” 26 Dec. 1889. with Forbes Report, Appendix E. Forbes Report.

⁴³ The annual fair at Sonepore convened for a fortnight when ritual bathing in the Gangeswas considered to impart great holiness. In its legendary past, Sonepore was associated withboth Hari (Vishnu) and Ram. See O'Malley, L. S. S., Bengal District Gazetteers: Saran (Calcutta, 1908), 166–68, for further details. Also Forbes Report on Sonepore's importancein publicizing the issue of the cow, and “Annual General Report for Patna for 1888–89, “which records that 250, 000 people attended the fair.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ “Translation of Gari Benair (prayer of the cow). Madhubani Gaurakshini Sabha.Darbhanga.” with Forbes Report, Appendix E.

⁴⁵ See “Case for the consideration of the Honorable Advocate General, “ by C. J. Lyall. Secretary, GOI, Home Dept., in L/P/6/367. end. 3.

⁴⁶ Forbes Report.

⁴⁷ Ibid.

⁴⁸ “Annual General Report of Patna Division for 1893–94.“

⁴⁹ Taziahs (copies of the tomb of Husain) were taken out in procession during theimportant Muslim event of Muharram. a period of mourning for Husain and his followers.See also Forbes Report.

⁵⁰ Manisty Report, II.

⁵¹ M Testimony of Roshun, Raj. chaukidar at Basantpur. Basantpur Trial, 10–11.Google Scholar See also testimony of Singh, Mahadeo, chaukidar at Basantpur, 9–10.Google Scholar

⁵² Manisty Report. II.

⁵³ Testimony of Ally, Shaikh Rahmat, carter for Bala indigo factory, in Basantpur Trial, 23.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Testimony of Kurmi, Anjur, a cultivator of Rampali, Basantpur Trial, 9.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Manisty Report, II.

⁵⁶ Ibid.

⁵⁷ See Basantpur Trial, 22.

⁵⁸ Ibid. 54.

⁵⁹ LeMesurier Report.

⁶⁰ Skinner, G. William, “Marketing and Social Structure in Rural China, ” Part I, Journal of Asian Studies 24 (11. 1964). 6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See also Smith, Carol A., “Economics of MarketingSystems: Models from Economic Geography, ” in Annual Review of Anthropology, ed. by Siegal, Bernard J. et al., vol. 3 (1974), 167–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶¹ Village Basantpur, Basantpur thana no. 358, Saran district Village Notes (hereafterVN. See also Hagen, James R. and Yang, Anand A., “Local Sources for the Study of RuralIndia: The 'Village Notes' of Bihar, ” Indian Economic and Social History Review 13(01.–03. 1976), 75–84, for further information regarding this source.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶² Forbes Report and Basantpur village. VN.

⁶³ Figures taken from Basantpur village, VN, which refer to 1917. Other castes inBasantpur were Brahmins (0.5 percent), Rajputs (8 percent), Kaysaths (4 percent), Koeris(1.5 percent), Kurmis (1 percent). Sheiks (0.5 percent), Chamars (4 percent), Ahirs (3percent), Kand us (1.5 percent), Gours (1.5 percent), Dusadhs (1.5 percent), Hajams (1percent). Dhobis (0.5 percent), Doms (1 percent), and Rangrezs (1.5 percent).

⁶⁴ Ibid.

⁶⁵ See Basantpur Trial, 21.

⁶⁶ Saran District Gazetteer, 99.

⁶⁷ Basantpur Trial, 49.

⁶⁸ Ibid. 60.

⁶⁹ Skinner, . “Marketing and Social Structure, ” Part I, 6.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Babhanuli village, Basantpur thana no. 319. VN.

⁷¹ Bala village. Basantpur thana no. 59. VN.

⁷² Nabiganj and Kishunpura village. Basantpur thana nos. 76 & 81. VN.73Forbes Report.

⁷⁴ Saran District Gazetteer, 99.

⁷⁵ Cited in testimony of Ali Hossein, constable, in Basantpur Trial, 51.

⁷⁶ See testimonies of Inspector Ghosal, Ramattar Pershad. Birda Singh, and Khub Narain. in Ibid., 29, 53, 53, and 58, respectively.

⁷⁷ Thompson, E. P., “The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century, ” Past and Present 50 (02. 1971), 135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Also, Hsieh, , “Peasant Insurrection and theMarketing Hierarchy, ” 124–41.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ For instance, see Basantpur Trial, 54.

⁷⁹ Ibid.21.

⁸⁰ Ibid., 23.

⁸¹ Ibid., 57.

⁸² Forbes Report

⁸³ Manisty Report, 1.

⁸⁴ For further details on control and conflict in the agrarian society of Saran. see my “TheAgrarian Origins of Crime.”