Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-8mjnm Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-29T08:30:30.884Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Assessing mobility in elderly people. A review of performance-based measures of balance, gait and mobility for bedside use

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 November 2008

Chris MacKnight
Affiliation:
Camp Hill Hospital, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
Kenneth Rockwood*
Affiliation:
Camp Hill Hospital, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
*
Kenneth Rockwood, Division of Geriatric Medicine, Camp Hill Hospital, 1763 Robie Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia, CanadaB3H 3G2.

Abstract

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Rehabilitation
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1995

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1Sheldon, TA. Please bypass the PORT, BMJ 1994; 309: 142–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
2Hicks, NR. Some observations on attempts to measure appropriateness of care. BMJ 1994; 309: 730–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
3Johnston, MV, Granger, CV. Outcomes research in medical rehabilitation: a primer and introduction to a series. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1994; 73: 296303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
4Tinetti, ME, Baker, DI, McAvay, G et al. A multifactorial intervention to reduce the risk of falling among elderly people living in the community. N Engl J Med 1994; 331: 821–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
5Nagi, SZ. An epidemiology of disability among adults in the United States. Milbank Mem Fund Q 1976; 54: 439–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6Lundgren-Lindquist, B, Jette, AM. Mobility disability among elderly men and women in Sweden. Int Disabil Stud 1990; 12: 15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7Anttila, S. Functional capacity in two elderly populations aged 75 and over: comparisons at 10 years' interval. J Clin Epidemiol 1991; 44: 1181–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
8Guralnik, JM, LaCroix, AZ, Abbott, RD et al. Maintaining mobility in late life: I. Demographic characteristics and chronic conditions. Am J Epidemiol 1993; 137: 845–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
9Fried, LP, Ettinger, WH, Lind, B, Newman, AB, Gardin, J. Physical disability in older adults: a physiological approach. J Clin Epidemiol 1994; 47: 747–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
10Dontas, AS, Tzonou, A, Kasviki-Charvati, P et al. Survival in a residential home: an eleven-year longitudinal study. J Am Geriatr Soc 1991; 39: 641–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
11Borrie, MJ, Davidson, HA. Incontinence in institutions: costs and contributing factors. Can Med Assoc J 1992; 147: 322–28.Google ScholarPubMed
12Warshaw, GA, Moore, JT, Friedman, W et al. Functional disability in the hospitalized elderly. JAMA 1982; 248: 847–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
13Pinholt, EM, Kroenke, K, Hanley, JF et al. Functional 10 assessment of the elderly: a comparison of standard instruments with clinical judgement. Arch Inter Med 1987; 147: 484–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
14Hirsch, CH, Sommers, L, Olsen, A, Mullen, L, Winograd, CH. The natural history of functional morbidity in hospitalized older patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 1990; 38: 1296–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
15Donaldson, LJ, Jagger, C. Survival and functional capacity: three year follow-up of an elderly population in hospitals and homes. J Epidemiol Community Health 1983; 37: 176–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16Rakowski, W, Mor, V. The association of physical activity with mortality among older adults in the longitudinal study of aging (1984–1988). J Gerontol 1992; 47: M12229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
17Jagger, C, Spiers, NA, Clarke, M. Factors associated with decline in function, institutionalization, and mortality of elderly people. Age Ageing 1993; 22: 190–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
18Wolinsky, FD, Callahan, CM, Fitzgerald, JF, Johnson, RJ. Changes in functional status and the risks of subsequent nursing home placement and death. J Gerontol 1993; 48: S93101.Google ScholarPubMed
19Sherman, SE, D'Agostino, RB, Cobb, JL, Kannel, WB. Does exercise reduce mortality rates in the elderly? Experience From the Framingham Heart Study. Am Heart J 1994; 128: 965–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
20Cohen, MA, Tell, EJ, Wallack, SS. Client-related risk factors of nursing home entry among elderly adults. J Gerontol 1986; 41: 785–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
21Harris, T, Kovar, MG, Suzman, R, Kleinman, JC, Feldman, JJ. Longitudinal study of physical ability in the oldest-old. Am J Public Health 1989; 79: 698702.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
22Jette, AM, Branch, LG, Sleeper, LA, Feldman, H, Sullivan, LM. High-risk profiles for nursing home admission. Gerontologist 1992; 32: 634–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
23Prudham, D, Grimley, Evans J. Factors associated with falls in the elderly: a community study. Age Ageing 1981; 10: 141–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
24Campbell, AJ, Reinken, J, Allan, BC et al. Falls in old age: a study of frequency and related clinical factors. Age Ageing 1981; 10: 264–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
25Blake, AJ, Morgan, K, Bendall, MJ et al. Falls by elderly people at home: prevalence and associated factors. Age Ageing 1988; 17: 365–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
26Mor, V, Murphy, J, Masterson-Allan, S et al. Risk of functional decline among well elders. J Clin Epidemiol 1989; 42: 895904.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
27LaCroix, AZ, Guralnik, JM, Berkman, LF, Wallace, RB, Satterfield, S. Maintaining mobility in late life: II. Smoking, alcohol consumption, physical activity, and body mass index. Am J Epidemiol 1993; 137: 858–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
28Fisher, NM, Pendergast, DR, Calkins, E. Muscle rehabilitation in impaired elderly nursing home residents. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1991; 72: 181–85.Google ScholarPubMed
29McMurdo, MET, Rennie, L. A controlled trial of exercise by residents of old people's homes. Age Ageing 1993; 22: 1115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30Mulrow, CD, Gerety, MB, Kanten, D et al. A randomized trial of physical rehabilitation for very frail nursing home residents. JAMA 1994; 271: 519–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
31Fiatarone, MA, O'Neill, EF, Ryan, ND et al. Exercise training and nutritional supplementation for physical frailty in very elderly people. N Engl J Med 1994; 330: 1769–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
32Buchner, DM, Beresford, SAA, Larson, EB, LaCroix, AZ, Wagner, EH. Effects of physical activity on health status in older adults II: Intervention studies. Annu Rev Public Health 1992; 13: 469–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
33Wagner, EH, LaCroix, AZ, Grothaus, L et al. Preventing disability and falls in older adults: a population-based randomized trial. Am J Public Health 1994; 84: 1800–806.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
34Woodhouse, KW, Wynne, H, Baillie, S, James, OFW, Rawlins, MD. Who are the frail elderly? Q J Med 1988; 68: 505506.Google ScholarPubMed
35Buchner, DM, Wagner, EH. Preventing frail health. Clin Geriatr Med 1992; 8: 117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
36Rockwood, K, Fox, RA, Stolee, P, Robertson, D, Beattie, BL. Frailty in elderly people: an evolving concept. Can Med Assoc J 1994; 150: 489–95.Google ScholarPubMed
37Asher, RAJ. Dangers of going to bed. BMJ 1947; 2: 967–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
38Parker, SG, Du, X, Bardsley, MJ et al. Measuring outcomes in care of the elderly. J R Coll Phys Lond 1994; 28: 428–33.Google ScholarPubMed
39Kane, RA, Kane, RL. Assessing the elderly: a practical guide to measurement. Toronto: Lexington Books, 1981.Google Scholar
40Granger, CV, Gresham, GE. Functional assessment in rehabilitation medicine. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1984.Google Scholar
41McDowell, I, Newell, C. Measuring health: a guide to rating scales and questionnaires. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.Google Scholar
42Streiner, DL, Norman, GR. Health measurement scales: a practical guide to their development and use. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.Google Scholar
43Feinstein, AR. Clinimetrics. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
44Johnston, MV, Keith, RA. Measurement standards for medical rehabilitation and clinical applications. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N A 1993; 4: 425–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
45Berk, RA. Generalizability of behavioral observations: clarification of interobserver agreement and interobserver reliability. Am J Ment Defic 1979; 83: 460–72.Google ScholarPubMed
46Sheikh, K. Disability scales: assessment of reliability, Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1986; 67: 245–49.Google ScholarPubMed
47Ottenbacher, KJ, Tomchek, SD. Measurement in rehabilitation research: consistency versus consensus. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N A 1993; 4: 463–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
48Ebel, RL. Estimation of the reliability of ratings. Psychometrika 1951; 16: 407–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
49Fleiss, JL, Cohen, J. Large sample standard errors of kappa and weighted kappa. Psychol Bull 1969; 72: 323–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
50Shrout, PE, Fleiss, JL. Intraclass correlations: uses in assessing rater reliability. Psychol Bull 1979; 86: 420–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
51Cronbach, LJ. Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika 1951; 16: 297334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
52Comrey, AL. Common methodologic problems in factor analytic studies. J Consult Clin Psychol 1978; 46: 648–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
53Guyatt, G, Walter, S, Norman, G. Measuring change over time: assessing the usefulness of evaluative instruments. J Chron Dis 1987; 40: 171–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
54Norman, GR. Issues in the use of change scores in randomized trials. J Clin Epidemiol 1989; 42: 1097–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
55Deyo, RO, Diehr, P, Patrick, DL. Reproducibility and responsiveness of health status measures: statistics and Strategies for evaluation. Controlled Clin Trials 1991; 12: 142S158S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
56Lachs, MS. The more things change…. J Clin Epidemiol 1993; 46: 1091–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
57Merbitz, C, Morris, J, Grip, JC. Ordinal scales and foundations of misinference. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1989; 70: 308–12.Google ScholarPubMed
58Wright, BD, Linacre, JM. Observations are always ordinal; measurements, however, must be interval. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1989; 70: 857–60.Google ScholarPubMed
59Lord, FM. On the statistical treatment of football numbers. Am Psychol 1953; 8: 750–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
60Gaito, J. Measurements scales and statistics: resurgence of an old misconception. Psychol Bull 1980; 87: 564–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
61Wright, BD, Linacre, JM, Heinemann, AW. Measuring functional status in rehabilitation. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N A 1993; 4: 475–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
62Fisher, WP, Fisher, AG. Applications of Rasch analysis to studies in occupational therapy. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N A 1993; 4: 551–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
63Doble, SE, Fisk, JD, Fisher, AG, Ritvo, PG, Murray, TJ. Functional competence of community-dwelling persons with multiple sclerosis using the assessment of motor and process skills. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1994; 75: 843–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
64Siu, AL, Reuben, DB, Hays, RD. Hierarchical measures of physical function in ambulatory geriatrics. J Am Geriatr Soc 1990; 38: 1113–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
65Lazaridis, EN, Rudberg, MA, Furner, SE, Cassel, CK. Do activities of daily living have a hierarchical structure? An analysis using the longitudinal study of aging. J Gerontol 1994; 49: M4751.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
66Katz, S, Ford, AB, Moskowitz, RW, Jackson, BA, Jaffe, MW. Studies of illness in the aged: the index of ADL: a standardized measure of biological and psychosocial function. JAMA 1963; 185: 914–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
67Brunnstrom, S. Motor testing procedures in hemiplegia: based on sequential recovery stages. J Am Phys Ther Assoc 1966; 46: 357–75.Google ScholarPubMed
68Daltroy, LH, Logigian, M, Iversen, MD, Liang, MH. Does musculoskeletal function deteriorate in a predictable sequence in the elderly? Arthritis Care Res 1992; 5: 146–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
69Mulrow, CD. The medical review article: state of the science. Ann Intern Med 1987; 106: 485–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
70Kazis, LE, Anderson, JJ, Meenan, RF. Effect sizes for interpreting changes in health status. Med Care 1989; 27: S17889.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
71Anderson, JJ, Firschein, HE, Meenan, RF. Sensitivity of a health status measure to short-term clinical changes in arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1989; 32: 844–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
72Liang, MH, Larson, MG, Cullen, KE, Schwartz, JA. Comparative measurement of efficiency and sensitivity of five health status instruments for arthritis research. Arthritis Rheum 1985; 28: 542–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
73Drillis, R. Objective recording and biomechanics of pathological gait. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1958; 74: 86109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
74Sheldon, JH. The effect of age on the control of sway. Gerontol Clin 1963; 5: 129–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
75Murray, MP, Drought, AB, Kory, RC. Walking patterns of normal men. J Bone Joint Surg 1964; 46A: 335–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
76Graybiel, A, Fregley, AR. A new quantitative ataxia test battery. Acta Oto-Laryngol 1966; 61: 292312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
77Murray, MP, Seirig, A, Scholz, RC. Centre of gravity, centre of pressure, and supportive forces during human activities. J Appl Physiol 1967; 23: 831–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
78Wright, BM. A simple mechanical ataxia-meter. J Physiol 1971; 218: 27P28P.Google ScholarPubMed
79Nelson, AJ. Functional ambulation profile. Phys Ther 1974; 54: 1059–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
80Stribley, RF, Albers, JW, Tourtellotte, WW, Cockrell, JL. A quantitative study of stance in normal subjects. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1974; 55: 7480.Google ScholarPubMed
81Hargreaves, P, Scales, JT. Clinical assessment of gait using load measuring footwear. Acta Orthop Scand 1975; 46: 877–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
82Terekhov, Y. Stabilometry as a diagnostic tool in clinical medicine. Can Med Assoc J 1976; 115: 631–33.Google ScholarPubMed
83Boenig, DD. Evaluation of a clinical method of gait analysis. Phys Ther 1977; 57: 795–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
84Cody, KA, Nelson, AJ. The effect of verticality perception on body balance in normal subjects. Phys Ther 1978; 58: 3541.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
85Foley, J. Vestibulogenic imbalance. BMJ 1978; 1: 1244–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
86Imms, FJ, Edholm, OG. The assessment of gait and mobility in the elderly. Age Ageing 1979; 8: 261–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
87Olney, SJ, Elkin, ND, Lowe, PJ, Symington, DC. An ambulation profile for clinical gait evaluation. Physiother Can 1979; 31: 8590.Google Scholar
88Wall, JC, Ashburn, A. Assessment of gait disability in hemiplegics: hemiplegic gait. Scand J Rehabil Med 1979; 11: 95103.Google ScholarPubMed
89Guimaraes, RM, Isaacs, B. Characteristics of the gait in old people who fall. Int Rehabil Med 1980; 2: 177–80.Google ScholarPubMed
90Shores, M. Footprint analysis in gait documentation: an instructional sheet format. Phys Ther 1980; 60: 1163–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
91Robinson, JL, Smidt, GL. Quantitative gait evaluation in the clinic. Phys Ther 1981; 61: 351–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
92Black, FO, Wall, C, Rockette, HE, Kitch, R. Normal subject postural sway during the Romberg test. Am J Otol 1982; 3: 309–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
93Jansen, EC, Larsen, RE, Olesen, MB. Quantitative Romberg's test: measurement and computer calculation of postural stability. Acta Neurol Scand 1982; 66: 9399.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
94Nayak, USL, Gabell, A, Simons, MA, Isaacs, B. Measurement of gait and balance in the elderly. J Am Geriatr Soc 1982; 30: 516–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
95Gifford, G, Hughes, J. A gait analysis system in clinical practice. J Biomed Eng 1983; 5: 297301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
96Gronley, DK, Perry, J. Gait analysis techniques: Rancho Los Amigos Hospital gait laboratory. Phys Ther 1984; 64: 1831–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
97Era, P, Heikkinen, E. Postural sway during standing and unexpected disturbance of balance in random samples of men of different ages. J Gerontol 1985; 40: 287–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
98Gabell, A, Simons, MA, Nayak, USL. Falls in the healthy elderly: predisposing causes. Ergonomics 1985; 28: 965–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
99Mechling, RW. Objective assessment of postural balance through use of the variable resistance balance board. Phys Ther 1986; 66: 685–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
100Shumway-Cook, A, Horak, FB. Assessing the influence of sensory interaction on balance: suggestions fron the field. Phys Ther 1986; 66: 1548–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
101Wolfson, LI, Whipple, R, Amerman, P, Kleinberg, A. Stressing the postural response: a quantitative method for testing balance. J Am Geriatr Soc 1986; 34: 845–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
102Dettman, MA, Linder, MT, Sepic, SB. Relationships among walking performance, postural stability, and functional assessments of the hemiplegic patient. Am J Phys Med 1987; 66: 7790.Google Scholar
103Maki, BE, Holliday, PJ, Fernie, GR. A posture control model and balance test for the prediction of relative postural stability. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1987; 34: 797810.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
104Klenerman, L, Dobbs, RJ, Weller, C, Leeman, AL, Nicholson, PW. Bringing gait analysis out of the laboratory and into the clinic. Age Ageing 1988; 17: 397400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
105Lee, WA, Deming, L, Sahgal, V. Quantitative and clinical measures of static standing balance in hemiparetic and normal subjects. Phys Ther 1988; 68: 970–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
106Lichtenstein, MJ, Shields, SL, Shiavi, RG, Burger, MC. Clinical determinants of biomechanics platform measures of balance in aged women. J Am Geriatr Soc 1988; 36: 9961002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
107Ring, C, Matthews, R, Nayak, USL, Isaacs, B. Visual push: a sensitive measure of dynamic balance in man. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1988; 69: 256–60.Google Scholar
108Fried, AV, Cwikel, J, Ring, H, Galinsky, D. ELGAM – Extra-laboratory gait assessment method: identification of risk factors for falls among the elderly at home. Int Disabil Stud 1990; 12: 161–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
109Kennedy, WR, Navarro, X, Stewart, NJ. Quantitation of the alternate movement rate in normal and diabetic subjects. Muscle Nerve 1991; 14: 1231–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
110Lord, SR, McLean, D, Strathers, G. Physiological factors associated with injurious falls in older people living in the community. Gerontology 1992; 38: 338–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
111Dickstein, R, Dvir, Z. Quantitative evaluation of stance balance performance in the clinic using a novel measurement device. Physiother Can 1993; 45: 102108.Google ScholarPubMed
112Fitzgerald, JE, Murray, A, Elliott, C, Birchall, JD. Comparison of balance assessment by sway magnetometry and force platforms. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1993; 119: 4146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
113Woolley, SM, Rubin, AM, Kantner, RM, Armstrong, CW. Differentiation of balance deficits through examination of selected components of static stabilometry. J Otolaryngol 1993; 22: 368–75.Google ScholarPubMed
114Yack, HJ, Berger, RC. Dynamic stability in the elderly: identifying a possible measure. J Gerontol 1993; 48: M22530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
115Colledge, NR, Cantley, P, Peaston, I et al. Ageing and balance: the measurement of spontaneous sway by posturography. Gerontology 1994; 40: 273–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
116Ostrosky, KM, van Swearingen, JM, Burdett, RG, Gee, Z. A comparison of gait characteristics in young and old subjects. Phys Ther 1994; 74: 637–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
117Hauser, SL, Dawson, DM, Lehrich, JR et al. Intensive immunosuppression in progressive multiple sclerosis: a randomized, three-arm study of high-dose intravenous cyclophosphamide, plasma exchange, and ACTH. New Engl J Med 1983; 308: 173–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
118May, D, Nayak, USL, Isaacs, B. The life-space diary: a measure of mobility in old people at home. Int Rehabil Med 1985; 7: 182–86.Google ScholarPubMed
119Morse, JM, Morse, RM, Tylko, SJ. Development of a scale to identify the fall-prone patient. Can J Aging 1989; 8: 366–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
120Tinetti, ME, Ginter, SF. The nursing home life-space diameter: a measure of extent and frequency of mobility among nursing home residents. J Am Geriatr Soc 1990; 38: 1311–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
121Rinzler, SH, Brown, H, Benton, JG. A method for the objective evaluation of physical and drug therapy in the rehabilitation of the hemiplegic patient. Am Heart J 1951; 42: 710–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
122Rankin, J. Cerebral vascular accidents in patients over the age of 60: II. Prognosis. Scot Med J 1957; 2: 200–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
123Schoening, HA, Anderegg, L, Bergstrom, D et al. Numerical scoring of self-care status of patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1965; 46: 689–97.Google ScholarPubMed
124Rose, AL, Walton, JN. Polymyositis: a survey of 89 cases with particular reference to treatment and prognosis. Brain 1966; 89: 747–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
125Pool, DA, Brown, RA. A functional rating scale for research in physical therapy. Tex Rep Biol Med 1968; 26: 133–36.Google ScholarPubMed
126Jefferys, M, Millard, JB, Hyman, M, Warren, MD. A set of tests for measuring motor impairment in prevalence studies. J Chron Dis 1969; 22: 303–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
127Potvin, AR, Tourtellotte, WW, Dailey, JS et al. Simulated activities of daily living examination. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1972; 53: 476–86.Google ScholarPubMed
128Fugl-Meyer, AR, Jaasko, L, Leyman, I, Olsson, S, Steglind, S. The post-stroke hemiplegic patient: I. A method for evaluation of physical performance. Scand J Rehabil Med 1975; 7: 1331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
129Stichbury, JC. Assessment of disability following severe head injury. Physiotherapy 1975; 61: 268–72.Google ScholarPubMed
130Convery, FR, Minteer, MA, Amiel, D, Connett, KL. Polyarticular disability: a functional assessment. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1977; 58: 494–99.Google ScholarPubMed
131Lincoln, N, Leadbitter, D. Assessment of motor function in stroke patients. Physiotherapy 1979; 65: 4851.Google ScholarPubMed
132Demeurisse, G, Demol, O, Robaye, E. Motor evaluation in vascular hemiplegia. Eur Neurol 1980; 19: 382–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
133Pourcher, E, Barbeau, A. Field testing of an ataxia scoring and staging system. Can J Neurol Sci 1980; 7: 339–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
134Sheikh, K, Smith, DS, Meade, TW, Brennan, PJ, Ide, L. Assessment of motor function in studies of chronic disability. Rheum Rehabil 1980; 19: 8390.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
135Imms, FJ, Edholm, OG. Studies of gait and mobility in the elderly. Age Ageing 1981; 10: 147–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
136Ashburn, A. A physical assessment for stroke patients. Physiotherapy 1982; 68: 109–13.Google ScholarPubMed
137Williams, ME, Hadler, NM, Earp, JAL. Manual ability as a marker of dependency in geriatric women. J Chron Dis 1982; 35: 115–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
138Hamrin, E, Wohlin, A. 1. Evaluation of the functional capacity of stroke patients through an activity index. Scand J Rehabil Med 1982; 14: 93100.Google Scholar
139Carr, JH, Shepherd, RB, Nordholm, L, Lynne, D. Investigation of a new motor assessment scale for stroke patients. Phys Ther 1985; 65: 175–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
140Lindmark, B. Evaluation of functional capacity after stroke with special emphasis on motor function and activities of daily living. Scand J Rehabil Med 1988; 21 (suppl): 140.Google ScholarPubMed
141Loewen, SC, Anderson, BA. Reliability of the modified motor assessment scale and the Barthel Index. Phys Ther 1988; 68: 1077–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
142Collin, C, Wade, D. Assessing motor impairment after stroke: a pilot reliability study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1990; 53: 576–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
143Reuben, DB, Siu, AL. An objective measure of physical function of elderly outpatients: the physical performance test. J Am Geriatr Soc 1990; 38: 1105–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
144Doherty, M, Dacre, J, Dieppe, P, Snaith, M. The ‘GALS’ locomotor screen. Ann Rheum Dis 1992; 51: 1165–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
145Weiner, DK, Duncan, PW, Chandler, J, Studenski, SA. Functional reach: a marker of physical frailty. J Am Geriatr Soc 1992; 40: 203207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
146Gerety, MB, Mulrow, CD, Tuley, MR et al. Development and validation of a physical performance instrument for the functionally impaired elderly: the physical disability index (PDI). J Gerontol 1993; 48: M3338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
147Koch, M, Gottschalk, M, Baker, DI, Palumbo, S, Tinetti, ME. An impairment and disability assessment and treatment protocol for community living elderly persons. Phys Ther 1994; 74: 286–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
148Wade, DT, Skilbeck, CE, Hewer, RL. Predicting Barthel ADL score at 6 months after an acute stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1983; 64: 2428.Google ScholarPubMed
149Wade, DT, Hewer, RL. Motor loss and swallowing difficulty after stroke: frequency, recovery, and prognosis. Acta Neurol Scand 1987; 76: 5054.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
150Sandin, KJ, Smith, BS. The measure of balance in sitting in stroke rehabilitation prognosis. Stroke 1990; 21: 8286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
151Cron, L, Sprigle, S. Clinical evaluation of the hemi wheelchair cushion. Am J Occup Ther 1993; 47: 141–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
152Begbie, GH. The assessment of imbalance. Physiotherapy 1969; 55: 411–14.Google ScholarPubMed
153Potvin, AR, Tourtellotte, WW. The neurological examination: advancements in its quantification. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1975; 56: 425–37.Google ScholarPubMed
154Obonyo, T, Drummond, M, Isaacs, B. Domiciliary physiotherapy for old people who have fallen. Int Rehabil Med 1983; 5: 157–60.Google ScholarPubMed
155Bohannon, RW, Larkin, PA, Cook, AC, Gear, J, Singer, J. Decrease in timed balance test scores with aging. Phys Ther 1984; 64: 1067–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
156Buchner, DM, Larson, EB. Falls and fractures in patients with Alzheimer-type dementia. JAMA 1987; 257: 1492–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
157Moffat, DA, Harries, MLL, Baguley, DM, Hardy, DG. Unterberger's stepping test in acoustic neuroma. J Laryngol Otol 1989; 103: 839–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
158Jirovec, MM, The impact of daily exercise on the mobility, balance, and urine control of cognitively impaired nursing home residents. Int J Nurs Stud 1991; 28: 145–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
159Lau, EMC, Woo, J, Lam, D. Neuromuscular impairment: a major cause of non-syncopal falls in elderly Chinese. Public Health 1991; 105: 369–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
160Lipsitz, LA, Jonsson, PV, Kelley, MM, Koestner, JS. Causes and correlates of recurrent falls in ambulatory frail elderly. J Gerontol 1991; 46: M11422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
161Clark, RD, Lord, SR, Webster, IW. Clinical parameters associated with falls in an elderly population. Gerontology 1993; 39: 117–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
162Fife, TD, Baloh, RW. Disequilibrium of unknown cause in older people. Ann Neurol 1993; 34: 694702.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
163Steiger, MJ, Berman, P. Gait disturbances in the acute medically ill elderly. Postgrad Med J 1993; 69: 141–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
164Notermans, NC, van Dijk, GW, van der, Graaf Y, van Gijn, J, Wokke, JHJ. Measuring ataxia: quantification based on the standard neurological examination. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994; 57: 2226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
165Vogt, MT, Cauley, JA, Kuller, LH, Nevitt, MC. Functional status and mobility among elderly women with lower extremity arterial disease: the study of osteoporotic fractures. J Am Geriatr Soc 1994; 42: 923–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
166Ropper, AH. Refined Romberg test. Can J Neurol Sci 1985; 12: 282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
167Wild, D, Nayak, USL, Isaacs, B. Prognosis of falls in old people at home. J Epidemiol Community Health 1981; 35: 200204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
168Murphy, J, Isaacs, B. The post-fall syndrome: a study of 36 elderly patients. Gerontology 1982; 28: 265–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
169Weiner, WJ, Nora, LM, Glantz, RH. Elderly inpatients: postural reflex impairment. Neurology 1984; 34: 945–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
170Briggs, RC, Gossman, MR, Birch, R, Drews, JE, Shaddeau, SA. Balance performance among noninstitutionalized elderly women. Phys Ther 1989; 69: 748–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
171Heitmann, DK, Gossman, MR, Shaddeau, SA, Jackson, JR. Balance performance and step width in noninstitutionalized elderly, female fallers and nonfallers. Phys Ther 1989; 69: 923–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
172Iverson, BD, Gossman, MR, Shaddeau, SA, Turner, ME. Balance performance, force production, and activity levels in noninstitutionalized men 60–90 years of age. Phys Ther 1990; 70: 348–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
173Berkman, LF, Seeman, TE, Albert, M et al. High, usual, and impaired functioning in community-dwelling older men and women: findings from the MacArthur Foundation Research Network on successful aging. J Clin Epidemiol 1993; 46: 1129–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
174Ensrud, KE, Nevitt, MC, Yunis, C et al. Correlates of impaired function in older women. J Am Geriatr Soc 1994; 42: 481–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
175Seeman, TE, Charpentier, PA, Berkman, LF et al. Predicting changes in physical performance in a high-functioning elderly cohort: MacArthur studies of successful aging. J Gerontol 1994; 49: M97108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
176Clark, BA, Wade, MG, Massey, BH, Van Dyke, R. Response of institutionalized geriatric mental patients to a twelve-week program of regular physical activity. J Gerontol 1975; 30: 565–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
177van Fraechem, J, van Fraechem, R. Studies of the effect of a short training period on aged subjects. J Sports Med 1977; 17: 373–30.Google Scholar
178Potvin, AR, Syndulko, K, Tourtellotte, WW, Lemmon, JA, Potvin, JH. Human neurologic function and the aging process. J Am Geriatr Soc 1980; 28: 19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
179Rikli, R, Busch, S. Motor performance of women as a function of age and physical activity level. J Gerontol 1986; 41: 645–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
180Stones, MJ, Kozma, A. Balance and age in the sighted and blind. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1987; 68: 8589.Google ScholarPubMed
181Ekdahl, C, Jaralo, GB, Andersson, SI. Standing balance in healthy subjects: evaluation of a quantitative test battery on a force platform. Scand J Rehabil Med 1989; 21: 187–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
182Nevitt, MC, Cummings, SR, Kidd, S, Black, D. Risk factors for recurrent nonsyncopal falls: a prospective study. JAMA 1989; 261: 2663–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
183Gehlsen, GM, Whaley, MH. Falls in the elderly: Part II, Balance, strength, and flexibility. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1990; 71: 739–41.Google ScholarPubMed
184Hopkins, DR, Murrah, B, Hoeger, WWK, Rhodes, RC. Effect of low-impact aerobic dance on the functional fitness of elderly women. Gerontologist 1990; 30: 189–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
185Johansson, G, Jarnlo, GB. Balance training in 70-year-old women. Physio Theory Pract 1991; 7: 121–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
186Rikli, RE, Edwards, DJ. Effects of a three-year exercise program on motor function and cognitive processing speed in older women. Res Q Exerc Sport 1991; 62: 6167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
187Studenski, S, Duncan, PW, Chandler, J. Postural responses and effector factors in persons with unexplained falls: results and methodologic issues. J Am Geriatr Soc 1991; 39: 229–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
188Rudisill, ME, Toole, T. Gender differences in motor performance of 50- to 79-year-old adults. Percept Mot Skills 1993; 77: 939–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
189Topp, R, Mikesky, A, Wigglesworth, J, Holt, W, Edwards, JE. The effect of a 12-week dynamic resistance strength training program on gait velocity and balance of older adults. Gerontologist 1993; 33: 501506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
190Balogun, JA, Akindele, KA, Nihinlola, JO, Marzouk, DK. Age-related changes in balance performance. Disabil Rehabil 1994; 16: 5862.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
191Hu, MH, Woollocott, MH. Multisensory training of standing balance in older adults: I. Postural stability and one-leg stance balance. J Gerontol 1994; 49: M5261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
192Lipsitz, LA, Nakajima, I, Gagnon, M et al. Muscle strength and fall rates among residents of Japanese and American nursing homes: an international cross-cultural study. J Am Geriatr Soc 1994; 42: 953–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
193Barry, AJ, Steinmetz, JR, Page, HF, Rodahl, K. The effects of physical conditioning on older individuals. II. Motor performance and cognitive function. J Gerontol 1966; 21: 192–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
194Bohannon, RW. Gait performance of hemiparetic stroke patients: selected variables. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1987; 68: 777–81.Google ScholarPubMed
195Bohannon, RW. Determinants of transfer capacity in patients with hemiparesis. Physiother Can 1988; 40: 236–39.Google Scholar
196Bohannon, RW. Correlation of lower limb strengths and other variables with standing performance in stroke patients. Physiother Can 1989; 41: 198202.Google Scholar
197Arfken, CL, Lach, HW, Birge, SJ, Miller, JP. The prevalence and correlates of fear of falling in elderly persons living in the community. Am J Public Health 1994; 84: 565–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
198Gabell, A, Simons, MA. Balance coding. Physiotherapy 1982; 68: 286–88.Google ScholarPubMed
199Fukuda, T. The stepping test: two phases of the labyrinthine reflex. Acta Otolaryngol 1950; 50: 95108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
200Hickey, SA, Ford, GR, Buckley, JG, Fitzgerald, O'Connor AF. Unterberger Stepping Test: a useful indicator of peripheral vestibular dysfunction? J Laryngol Otol 1990; 104: 599602.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
201Lord, SR, Clark, RD, Webster, IW. Postural stability and associated physiological factors in a population of aged persons. J Gerontol 1991; 46: M6976.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
202Prescott, RJ, Garraway, WM, Akhtar, AJ. Predicting functional outcome following acute stroke using a standard clinical examination. Stroke 1982; 13: 641–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
203Nobile-Orazio, E, Baldini, L, Barbieri, S et al. Treatment of patients with neuropathy and anti-MAG IgM M-proteins. Ann Neurol 1988; 24: 9397.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
204Tourtellotte, WW, Syndulko, K, Potvin, AR, Hirsch, SB, Potvin, JH. Increased ratio of carbidopa to levodopa in treatment of Parkinson's disease. Arch Neurol 1980; 37: 723–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
205Fiatarone, MA, Marks, EC, Ryan, ND et al. High-intensity strength training in nonagenarians: effects on skeletal muscle. JAMA 1990; 263: 3029–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
206Berg, K, Wood-Dauphinee, S, Williams, JI, Maki, B. Measuring balance in the elderly: preliminary development of an instrument. Physiother Can 1989; 41: 304–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
207Podsiadlo, D, Richardson, S. The timed ‘up and go’: a test of basic functional mobility for frail elderly persons. J Am Geriatr Soc 1991; 39: 142–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
208Berg, KO, Maki, BE, Williams, JI, Holliday, PJ, Wood-Dauphinee, SL. Clinical and laboratory measures of postural balance in an elderly population. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1992; 73: 1073–80.Google Scholar
209Berg, KO, Wood-Dauphinee, SL, Williams, JI, Gayton, D. Measuring balance in the elderly: validation of an instrument. Can J Public Health 1992; 83 (suppl 2): S711.Google ScholarPubMed
210Duncan, PW, Weiner, DK, Chandler, J, Studenski, S. Functional reach: a new clinical measure of balance. J Gerontol 1990; 45: M19297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
211Duncan, PW, Studenski, S, Chandler, J, Prescott, B. Functional reach: predictive validity in a sample of elderly male veterans. J Gerontol 1992; 47: M9398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
212Duncan, PW, Chandler, J, Studenski, S, Hughes, M, Prescott, B. How do physiological components of balance affect mobility in elderly men? Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1993; 74: 1343–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
213Lyles, KW, Gold, DT, Shipp, KM et al. Association of osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures with impaired functional status. Am J Med 1993; 94: 595601.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
214Weiner, DK, Bongiorni, DR, Studenski, SA, Duncan, PW, Kochersberger, GG. Does functional reach improve with rehabilitation? Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1993; 74: 796800.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
215Studenski, S, Duncan, PW, Chandler, J et al. Predicting falls: the role of mobility and nonphysical factors. J Am Geriatr Soc 1994; 42: 297302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
216Thapa, PB, Gideon, P, Fought, RL, Kormicki, M, Ray, WA. Comparison of clinical and biomechanical measures of balance and mobility in elderly nursing home residents. J Am Geriatr Soc 1994; 42: 493500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
217The Cooperating Clinics Committee of the American Rheumatism Association. A seven-day variability study of 499 patients with peripheral rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1965; 8: 302–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
218Bassey, EJ, Fentem, PH, MacDonald, IC, Scriven, RM. Self-paced walking as a method for exercise testing in elderly and young men. Clin Sci Mol Med 1976; 51: 609–12.Google ScholarPubMed
219McGavin, CR, Gupta, SP, McHardy, GJR. Twelve-minute walking test for assessing disability in chronic bronchitis. BMJ 1976; 1: 822–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
220Leggett, RJE, Flenley, DC. Portable oxygen and exercise tolerance in patients with chronic hypoxic cor pulmonale. BMJ 1977; 2: 8486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
221McGavin, CR, Gupta, SP, Lloyd, EL, McHardy, GJR. Physical rehabilitation for the chronic bronchitic: results of a controlled trial of exercises in the home. Thorax 1977; 32: 307–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
222Leitch, AG, Hopkin, JM, Ellis, DA, Merchant, S, McHardy, GJR. The effect of aerosol ipratropium bromide and salbutamol on exercise tolerance in chronic bronchitis. Thorax 1978; 33: 711–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
223Mungall, IPF, Hainsworth, R. Assessment of respiratory function in patients with chronic obstructive airways disease. Thorax 1979; 34: 254–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
224Aniansson, A, Rundgren, A, Sperling, L. Evaluation of functional capacity in activities of daily living in 70-year-old men and women. Scand J Rehabil Med 1980; 12: 161–70.Google ScholarPubMed
225Belman, MJ, Mittman, C. Ventilatory muscle training improves exercise capacity in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients. Am Rev Respir Dis 1980; 121: 273–80.Google ScholarPubMed
226O'Reilly, JF, Shaylor, JM, Harrison, BDW. Week-to-week reproducibility of the 12-minute walking test and its use in assessing the effects of oral steroid treatment in chronic airways obstruction. Thorax 1980; 35: 718.Google Scholar
227Sinclair, DJM, Ingram, CG. Controlled trial of supervised exercise training in chronic bronchitis. BMJ 1980; 280: 519–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
228Alison, JA, Samios, R, Anderson, SD. Evaluation of exercise training in patients with chronic airway obstruction. Phys Ther 1981; 61: 1273–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
229Cockcroft, AE, Saunders, MJ, Berry, G. Randomised controlled trial of rehabilitation in chronic respiratory disability. Thorax 1981; 36: 200203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
230Leitch, AG, Morgan, A, Ellis, DA et al. Effect of oral salbutamol and slow-release aminophylline on exercise tolerance in chronic bronchitis. Thorax 1981; 36: 787–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
231Pardy, RL, Rivington, RN, Despas, PJ, Macklen, PT. Inspiratory muscle training compared with physiotherapy in patients with chronic airflow limitation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1981; 123: 421–25.Google ScholarPubMed
232Pardy, RL, Rivington, RN, Despas, PJ, Macklen, PT. The effect of inspiratory muscle training on exercise performance in chronic airflow limitation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1981; 123: 426–33.Google ScholarPubMed
233Woodcock, AA, Gross, ER, Geddes, DM. Oxygen relieves breathlessness in ‘Pink Puffers’. Lancet 1981; i: 907909.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
234Woodcock, AA, Gross, ER, Geddes, DM. Drug treatment of breathlessness: contrasting effects of diazepam and promethazine in pink puffers. BMJ 1981; 283: 343–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
235Butland, RJA, Pang, J, Gross, ER, Woodcock, AA, Geddes, DM. Two-, six-, and 12-minute walking tests in respiratory disease. BMJ 1982; 284: 1607–608.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
236Cunningham, DA, Rechnitzer, PA, Pearce, ME, Donner, AP. Determinants of self-selected walking pace across ages 19 to 66. J Gerontol 1982; 37: 560–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
237Lundgren-Lindquist, B, Aniansson, A, Rundgren, A. Functional studies in 79-year-olds III. Walking performance and climbing capacity. Scand J Rehabil Med 1983; 15: 125–31.Google ScholarPubMed
238Morgan, AD, Peck, DF, Buchanan, DR, McHardy, GJR. Effect of attitudes and beliefs on exercise tolerance in chronic bronchitis. BMJ 1983; 286: 171–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
239Guyatt, GH, Pugsley, SO, Sullivan, MJ et al. Effect of encouragement on walking test performance. Thorax 1984; 39: 818–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
240Williams, ME, Hornberger, JC. A quantitative method of identifying older persons at risk for increasing long term care services. J Chron Dis 1984; 37: 705–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
241Guyatt, GH, Sullivan, MJ, Thompson, PJ et al. The 6-minute walk: a new measure of exercise capacity in patients with chronic heart failure. Can Med Assoc J 1985; 132: 919–23.Google Scholar
242Guyatt, GH, Thompson, PJ, Berman, LB et al. How should we measure function in patients with chronic heart and lung disease? J Chron Dis 1985; 38: 517–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
243Holden, MK, Gill, KM, Magliozzi, MR. Gait assessment for neurologically impaired patients: standards for outcome assessment. Phys Ther 1986; 66: 1530–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
244Guyatt, GH, Townsend, M, Pugsley, SO et al. Bronchodilators in chronic air-flow limitation: effects on airway function, exercise capacity, and quality of life. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987; 135: 1069–74.Google ScholarPubMed
245Spiegel, JS, Paulus, HE, Ward, NB et al. What are we measuring? An examination of walk time and grip strength. J Rheumatal 1987; 14: 8086.Google ScholarPubMed
246Wade, DT, Wood, VA, Heller, A, Maggs, J, Hewer, RL. Walking after stroke: measurement and recovery over the first 3 months. Scand J Rehabil Med 1987; 19: 2530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
247Friedman, PJ, Richmond, DE, Baskett, JJ. A prospective trial of serial gait speed as a measure of rehabilitation in the elderly. Age Ageing 1988; 17: 227–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
248Himann, JE, Cunningham, DA, Rechnitzer, PA, Paterson, DH. Age-related changes in speed of walking. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1988; 20: 161–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
249Bendall, MJ, Bassey, EJ, Pearson, MB. Factors affecting walking speed of elderly people. Age Ageing 1989; 18: 327–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
250Campbell, AJ, Borrie, MJ, Spears, GF. Risk factors for falls in a community-based prospective study of people 70 years and older. J Gerontol 1989; 44: M11217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
251Collen, FM, Wade, DT, Bradshaw, CM. Mobility after stroke: reliability of measures of impairment and disability. Int Disabil Stud 1990; 12: 69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
252Friedman, PJ. Gait recovery after hemiplegic stroke. Int Disabil Stud 1990; 12: 119–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
253Collen, FM, Wade, DT, Robb, GF, Bradshaw, CM. The Rivermead Mobility Index: a further development of the Rivermead Motor Assessment. Int Disabil Stud 1991; 13: 5054.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
254Bassey, EJ, Fiatarone, MA, O'Neill, EF et al. Leg extensor power and functional performance in very old men and women. Clin Sci 1992; 82: 321–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
255Wade, DT, Collen, FM, Robb, GF, Warlow, CP. Physiotherapy intervention late after stroke and mobility. BMJ 1992; 304: 609–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
256Fisher, NM, Gresham, GE, Abrams, M et al. Quantitative effects of physical therapy on muscular and functional performance in subjects with osteoarthritis of the knees. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1993; 74: 840–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
257Gibbs, J, Hughes, S, Dunlop, D et al. Joint impairment and ambulation in the elderly. J Am Geriatr Soc 1993; 41: 1205–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
258Judge, JO, Underwood, M, Gennosa, T. Exercise to improve gait velocity in older persons. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1993; 74: 400406.Google ScholarPubMed
259Hoxie, RE, Rubenstein, LZ. Are older pedestrians allowed enough time to cross intersections safely? J Am Geriatr Soc 1994; 42: 241–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
260Judge, JO, Whipple, RH, Wolfson, LI. Effects of resistive and balance exercises on isokinetic strength in older persons. J Am Geriatr Soc 1994; 42: 937–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
261Tinetti, ME, Mendes de, Leon CF, Doucette, JT, Baker, DI. Fear of falling and fall-related efficacy in relationship to functioning among community-living elders. J Gerontol 1994; 49: M14047.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
262Holden, MK, Gill, KM, Magliozzi, MR, Nathan, J, Piehl-Baker, L. Clinical gait assessment in the neurologically impaired: reliability and meaningfulness. Phys Ther 1984; 64: 3540.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
263Dickstein, R, Hocherman, S, Pillar, T, Shaham, R. Stroke rehabilitation: three exercise therapy approaches. Phys Ther 1986; 66: 1233–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
264Wolfson, L, Whipple, R, Amerman, P, Tobin, JN. Gait assessment in the elderly: a gait abnormality rating scale and its relation to falls. J Gerontol 1990; 45: M1219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
265Alexander, NB, Fry-Welch, DK, Ward, ME, Folkmier, LC. Quantitative assessment of bed rise difficulty in young and elderly women. J Am Geriatr Soc 1992; 40: 685–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
266Wheeler, J, Woodward, C, Ucovich, RL, Perry, J, Walker, JM. Rising from a chair: influence of age and chair design. Phys Ther 1985; 65: 2226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
267Weiner, DK, Long, R, Hughes, MA, Chandler, J, Studenski, S. When older adults face the chair-rise challenge: a study of chair height availability and height-modified chair-rise performance in the elderly. J Am Geriatr Soc 1993; 41: 610.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
268Csuka, M, McCarty, DJ. Simple method for measurement of lower extremity muscle strength. Am J Med 1985; 78: 7781.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
269Greig, CA, Botella, J, Young, A. The quadriceps strength of healthy elderly people remeasures after eight years. Muscle Nerve 1993; 16: 610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
270O'Hagan, CM, Smith, DM, Pileggi, KL. Exercise classes in rest homes: effect on physical function. N Z Med J 1994; 107: 3940.Google ScholarPubMed
271Campbell, AJ, Spears, GF, Borrie, MJ. Examination by logistic regression modelling of the variables which increase the relative risk of elderly women falling compared to elderly men. J Clin Epidemiol 1990; 43: 1415–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
272Jebsen, RH, Trieschmann, RB, Mikulic, MA et al. Measurement of time in a standardized test of patient mobility. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1970; 51: 170–75.Google Scholar
273Mikulic, MA, Griffith, ER, Jebsen, RH. Clinical applications of a standardized mobility test. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1976; 57: 143–46.Google ScholarPubMed
274Zuck, D, Singer, DL. Standard functional goals. Phys Ther 1980; 60: 793–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
275Talmage, EW, Collins, GA. Physical abilities after head injury: a retrospective study. Phys Ther 1983; 63: 2010–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
276Tinetti, ME. Performance-oriented assessment of mobility problems in elderly patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 1986; 34: 119–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
277Tinetti, ME, Williams, TF, Mayewski, R. Fall risk index for elderly patients based on number of chronic disabilities. Am J Med 1986; 80: 429–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
278Tinetti, ME, Ginter, SF. Identifying mobility dysfunctions in elderly patients: standard neuromuscular examination or direct assessment? JAMA 1988; 259: 1190–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
279Tinetti, ME, Speechley, M, Ginter, SF. Risk factors for falls among elderly persons living in the community. N Engl J Med 1988; 319: 1701–707.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
280Robbins, AS, Rubenstein, LZ, Josephson, KR et al. Predictors of falls among elderly people: results of two population-based studies. Arch Intern Med 1989; 149: 1628–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
281Hale, WA, Delaney, MJ, McGaghie, WC. Predicting elderly patients' mobility using fall history and physician assessment. Fam Med 1990; 22: 383–87.Google ScholarPubMed
282Lichtenstein, MJ, Burger, MC, Shields, SL, Shiavi, RG. Comparison of biomechanics platform measures of balance and videotaped measures of gait with a clinical mobility scale in elderly women. J Gerontol 1990; 45: M4954.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
283Rubenstein, LZ, Robbins, AS, Josephson, KR, Schulman, BL, Osterweil, D. The value of assessing falls in an elderly population: a randomized clinical trial. Ann Intern Med 1990; 113: 308–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
284Maki, BE, Holliday, PJ, Topper, AK. Fear of falling and postural performance in the elderly. J Gerontol 1991; 46: M12331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
285Bloem, BR, Haan, J, Lagaay, AM et al. Investigation of gait in elderly subjects over 88 years of age. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 1992; 5: 7884.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
286Hale, WA, Delaney, MJ, McGaghie, WC. Characteristics and predictors of falls in elderly patients. J Fam Pract 1992; 34: 577–81.Google ScholarPubMed
287Hale, WA, Delaney, MJ, McGaghie, WC. Physician estimates as predictors of elderly patients' mobility scores. Fam Med 1992; 24: 2427.Google ScholarPubMed
288Reuben, DB, Siu, AL, Kimpau, S. The predictive validity of self-report and performance-based measures of function and health. J Gerontol 1992; 47: M10610.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
289Sauvage, LR, Myklebust, BM, Crow-Pan, J et al. A clinical trial of strengthening and aerobic exercise to improve gait and balance in elderly male nursing home residents. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1992; 71: 333–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
290Meldrum, D, Flinn, AM. An investigation of balance function in elderly subjects who have and have not fallen. Physiotherapy 1993; 79: 839–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
291Siu, AL, Hays, RD, Ouslander, JG et al. Measuring function and health in the very old. J Gerontol 1993; 48: M1014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
292Siu, AL, Ouslander, JG, Osterweil, D, Reuben, DB, Hays, RD. Change in self-reported functioning in older persons entering a residential care facility. J Clin Epidemiol 1993; 46: 1093–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
293Tinetti, ME, Liu, WL, Claus, EB. Predictors and prognosis of inability to get up after falls among elderly persons. JAMA 1993; 269: 6570.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
294Topper, AK, Maki, BE, Holliday, PJ. Are activity-based assessments of balance and gait in the elderly predictive of risk of falling and/or type of fall? J Am Geriatr Soc 1993; 41: 479–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
295Baloh, RW, Fife, TD, Zwerling, L et al. Comparison of static and dynamic posturography in young and older normal people. J Am Geriatr Soc 1994; 42: 405–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
296Franzoni, S, Rozzini, R, Boffelli, S, Frisoni, GB, Trabucchi, M. Fear of falling in nursing home patients. Gerontology 1994; 40: 3844.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
297Maki, BE, Holliday, PJ, Topper, AK. A prospective study of postural balance and risk of falling in an ambulatory and independent elderly population. J Gerontol 1994; 49: M7284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
298Mathias, S, Nayak, USL, Isaacs, B. Balance in elderly patients: the ‘Get-Up and Go’ test. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1986; 67: 387–89.Google Scholar
299Adunsky, A, Hershkowitz, M, Rabbi, R, Asher-Sivron, L, Ohry, A. Functional recovery in young stroke patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1992; 73: 859–62.Google ScholarPubMed
300Winograd, CH, Lemsky, CM, Nevitt, MC et al. Development of a physical performance and mobility examination. J Am Geriatr Soc 1994; 42: 743–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
301Guralnik, JM, Simonsick, EM, Ferrucci, L et al. A short physical performance battery assessing lower extremity function: association with self-reported disability and prediction of mortality and nursing home admission. J Gerontol 1994; 49: M8594.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
302Salive, ME, Guralnik, J, Glynn, RJ et al. Association of visual impairment with mobility and physical function. J Am Geriatr Soc 1994; 42: 287–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
303Smith, R. Validation and reliability of the elderly mobility scale. Physiotherapy 1994; 80: 744–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
304MacKnight, C, Rockwood, K. A hierarchical assessment of balance and mobility. Age Ageing 1995 (in press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
305Roos, NP, Havens, B. Predictors of successful aging: a twelve-year study of Manitoba elderly. Am J Public Health 1991; 81: 6368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
306Wolinsky, FD, Johnson, RJ. Perceived health status and mortality among older men and women. J Gerontol 1992; 47: S30412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
307Mahoney, FI, Barthel, DW. Functional evaluation: the Barthel Index. Md State Med J 1965; 14: 6165.Google ScholarPubMed
308Granger, CV, Albrecht, Gl, Hamilton, BB. Outcome of comprehensive medical rehabilitation: measurement by PULSES profile and Barthel Index. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1979; 60: 145–54.Google ScholarPubMed
309Rodgers, H, Curless, R, James, OFW. Standardized functional assessment scales for elderly patients. Age Ageing 1993; 22: 161–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
310Simpson, JM, Forster, A. Assessing elderly people: should we all use the same scales? Physiotherapy 1993; 79: 836–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
311Smith, A. Beware of the Barthel. Physiotherapy 1993; 79: 843–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
312Kaufert, JM, Green, S, Dunt, DR et al. Assessing functional status among elderly patients: a comparison of questionnaire and service provider ratings. Med Care 1979; 17: 807–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
313Ranhoff, AH, Laake, K. The Barthel ADL Index: scoring by the physician from patient interview is not reliable. Age Ageing 1993; 22: 171–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
314Kaufert, JM. Functional ability indices: measurement problems in assessing their validity. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1983; 64: 260–67.Google ScholarPubMed
315Rubenstein, LZ, Schairer, C, Wieland, GD, Kane, R. Systematic biases in fucntional status assessment of elderly adults: effects of different data sources. J Gerontol 1984; 39: 686–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
316Kiyak, HA, Teri, L, Borson, S. Physical and functional health assessment in normal aging and in Alzheimer's disease: self-reports vs family reports. Gerontologist 1994; 34: 324–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
317Guralnik, JM, Branch, LG, Cummings, SR, Curb, JD. Physical performance measures in aging research. J Gerontol 1989; 44: M14146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
318Kuriansky, JB, Gurland, BJ, Fleiss, JL, Cowan, D. The assessment of self-care capacity in geriatric psychiatric patients by objective and subjective methods. J Clin Psychol 1976; 32: 95102.3.0.CO;2-J>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
319Elam, JT, Graney, MJ, Beaver, T et al. Comparison of subjective ratings of function with observed functional ability of frail older persons. Am J Public Health 1991; 81: 1127–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
320Sager, MA, Dunham, NC, Schwantes, A et al. Measurement of activities of daily living in hospitalized elderly: a comparison of self-report and performance-based methods. J Am Geriatr Soc 1992; 40: 457–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
321Rozzini, R, Frisoni, GB, Bianchetti, A, Zanetti, O, Trabucchi, M. Physical performance test and activities of daily living scales in the assessment of health status in elderly people. J Am Geriatr Soc 1993; 41: 1109–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
322Bindman, AB, Keane, D, Lurie, N. Measuring health changes among severely ill patients: the floor phenomenon. Med Care 1990; 28: 1142–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
323Myers, AM, Holliday, PJ, Harvey, KA, Hutchinson, KS. Functional performance measures: are they superior to self-assessments? J Gerontol 1993; 48: M196206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
324Fried, LP, Bush, TL. Morbidity as a focus of preventive health care in the elderly. Epidemiol Rev 1988; 10: 4864.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed