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Fazlul Huq, Region and Religion in Bengal: The Forgotten Alternative of 1940–43

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 November 2008

SANA AIYAR
SANA AIYAR*
Affiliation:
Department of History, Harvard University, Robinson Hall, 35 Quincy Street, Cambridge MA 02138USA E-mail: saiyar@fas.harvard.edu
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Abstract

In the wake of the Government of India Act of 1935, provincial politics emerged as a challenge to the authority and legitimacy of all-India, centralised political parties. While the Congress and the Muslim League set up a binary opposition between secular and religious nationalism, provincial politicians refused to succumb to the singularity of either alternative. Partition historiography has been concerned with the interplay of national and communal ideologies in the 1940s, overshadowing this third trajectory of regional politics that was informed by provincial particularities. This article traces a short-lived alternative that emerged in Bengal between 1940 and 1943 under the premiership of Fazlul Huq. Huq produced a peculiar form of identity politics that appealed not only to religious sentiment but also to regional loyalty that cut across the religious divide. Significantly, he did so without resorting to secular claims. By challenging Jinnah's claim to being the sole spokesman of Muslims in India and highlighting the different concerns of a province with a Muslim majority, Huq reconciled the twin identities of religion and region within the same political paradigm, and foreshadowed the emergence of Bangladesh in 1971.

Type
Research Article
Information
Modern Asian Studies , Volume 42 , Issue 6 , November 2008 , pp. 1213 - 1249
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2007

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References

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Private Papers

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Hasan, Mushirul, ‘Communalism in the Provinces: A Case Study of Bengal and the Punjab 1922–26’, in Hasan, Mushirul (ed), Communal and Pan-Islamic Trends in Colonial India, Manohar, Delhi, India, 1981.Google Scholar
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Lahiri, Pradip Kumar, Bengali Muslim Thought (1818–1947): Its Liberal and Rational Trends, K.P. Bagchi & Co, Calcutta, India, 1989.Google Scholar
Momen, Humaira, Muslim Politics in Bengal: A Study of Krishak Praja Party and the Elections of 1937, Sunny House, Dacca, Bangladesh, 1972.Google Scholar
Moore, R.J., ‘Jinnah and the Pakistan Demand’, in Hasan, Mushirul (ed), India's Partition: Process, Strategy and Mobilization, Oxford University Press, Delhi, India, 1993.Google Scholar
Murshid, Tazeen M., The Sacred and the Secular: Bengal Muslim Discourses, 1871–1977, Oxford University Press, Calcutta, India, 1995.Google Scholar
Pandey, Gyanendra, The Construction of Communalism in Colonial North India, Oxford University Press, Delhi, India, 1990.Google Scholar
Rab, Abur, A. K. Fazlul Haq: Life and Achievements, Lahore, Pakistan, n.d.Google Scholar
Rahim, Enayetur, Provincial Autonomy in Bengal (1937–1943), Dacca, Bangladesh, 1981.Google Scholar
Rai, Mridu, Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects: Islam, Rights and the History of Kashmir, Princeton University Press, NJ, 2004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rashid, Harun-ur-, The Foreshadowing of Bangladesh: Bengal Muslim League and Muslim Politics 1936–1947, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, Dacca, Bangladesh, 1987.Google Scholar
Robinson, Francis, Separatism Among Indian Muslims: The Politics of the United Provinces’ Muslims, 1860–1923, Cambridge University Press, London, 1974.Google Scholar
Robinson, Francis, ‘Nation Formation: The Brass Thesis and Muslim Separatism’, in Jeffrey, Robin (ed), India: Rebellion to Republic—Selected Writings, 1857–1990, Sterling, Delhi, India, 1990.Google Scholar
Roy, Asim, ‘The High Politics of India's Partition: The Revisionist Perspective’, in Hasan, Mushirul (ed), India's Partition: Process, Strategy and Mobilization, Oxford University Press, Delhi, India, 1993.Google Scholar
Roy, Asim, ‘Being and Becoming a Muslim: A Historiographic Perspective on the Search for Muslim Identity’, in Bandhyopadhyay, Sekhar (ed), Bengal: Rethinking History, Essays in Historiography, Manohar, Delhi, India, 2001.Google Scholar
Sanaullah, Muhammad, A.K. Fazlul Huq: Portrait of a Leader, Kazi Anwar Hossain, Chittagong, Bangladesh, 1975.Google Scholar
Saxena, N.C., ‘Historiography of Communalism in India, in Hasan, Mushirul (ed), Communal and Pan-Islamic Trends in Colonial India, Manohar, Delhi, India, 1981.Google Scholar
Sen, Shila, Muslim Politics in Bengal 1937–1947, Impex India, Delhi, India, 1977.Google Scholar
Shaikh, Farzana, ‘Muslims and Political Representation in Colonial India: The Making of Pakistan’, Modern Asian Studies, 20 (3), 1986, pp. 539–557.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Talbot, Ian, Provincial Politics and the Pakistan Movement of the Muslim League in North-West and North-East India 1937–47, Oxford University Press, Karachi, Pakistan, 1988.Google Scholar
Yusuf, Kaniz F., Akhtar, M.S. and Razi Easti, S. (eds), Pakistan Resolution Revisited, National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research, Islamabad, Pakistan, 1990.Google Scholar
Zaheer, Hasan, The Separation of East Pakistan: The Rise and Realization of Bengali Muslim Nationalism, Oxford University Press, Karachi, Pakistan, 1994.Google Scholar
Zutshi, Chitralekha, Languages of Belonging: Islam, Regional Identity and the Making of Kashmir, Oxford University Press, Delhi, India, 2004.Google Scholar
India Office Library, London.Google Scholar
Governor's Secretariat, Bengal.Google Scholar
MSS Eur E 341/46.Google Scholar
Casey Diaries.Google Scholar
Personal Diary, R.G. Casey, Vols I–IV.Google Scholar
Centre of South Asian Studies, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Linlithgow Collection: Correspondence with the Governor of Bengal and his Secretary.Google Scholar
MSS Eur F 125/41.Google Scholar
MSS Eur F 125/42.Google Scholar
Governor of Bengal Reports, India Office Library, London.Google Scholar
L/P&J/5/148.Google Scholar
L/P&J/5/151.Google Scholar
L/P&J/5/154.Google Scholar
L/P&J/8/651.Google Scholar
L/P&J/8/652.Google Scholar
L/P&J/8/653.Google Scholar
L/P&J/8/655.Google Scholar
Abedin, A.K. Zainul, Memorable Speeches of Sher-e-Bangla, Al-Helal Publishing House, Barisal Bangladesh n.d.,Google Scholar
Allana, Gulam (ed), Pakistan Movement: Historic Documents, Paradise Subscription Agency, Karachi, Pakistan, 1968.Google Scholar
Mansergh, Nicholas and Moon, Penderel (eds), Constitutional Relations Between Britain and India, The Transfer of Power 1942–47, Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London, 1980.Google Scholar
Mitra, H.N. (ed), India Annual Register, 1940–47, Gian Publishing House, Delhi, India, 1990.Google Scholar
Ikram Ali Malik, Muslim League Session 1940 and The Lahore Resolution (Documents), National Institute of Cultural Research, Islamabad, Pakistan, 1990.Google Scholar
Pirzada, Syed Sharifuddin (ed), Foundations of Pakistan: All-India Muslim League Documents, 1906–1947, Vol. II 1924–1947, National Publishing House Limited, Karachi, Pakistan, 1970.Google Scholar
Amrita Bazaar Patrika, Calcutta.Google Scholar
Dawn, Lahore.Google Scholar
The Statesman, Calcutta.Google Scholar
Adnan, Shapan, ‘Fazlul Haq and the Bengali Muslim Leadership: 1937–1943’, Bangladesh Historical Studies, 1, 1976.Google Scholar
Ahmad, Kamaruddin, The Social History of East Pakistan, Mrs Amina Khatun, Dacca, Bangladesh, 1967.Google Scholar
Bandhyopadhyay, Sekhar (ed), Bengal: Rethinking History, Essays in Historiography, Manohar, Delhi, India, 2001.Google Scholar
Bose, Sugata, ‘Between Monolith and Fragment: A Note on the Historiography of Nationalism in Bengal’, in Bandhyopadhyay, Sekhar (ed), Bengal: Rethinking History, Essays in Historiography, Manohar, Delhi, India, 2001.Google Scholar
Bose, Sugata, ‘A Doubtful Inheritance: The Partition of Bengal in 1947’, in Low, D.A. (ed), The Political Inheritance of Pakistan, Macmillan, London, 1991.Google Scholar
Brass, Paul R., Language Religion and Politics in North India, Cambridge University Press, London, 1974.Google Scholar
Brass, Paul R., ‘A Reply to Francis Robinson’, in Jeffrey, Robin (ed), India: Rebellion to Republic—Selected Writings, 1857–1990, Sterling, Delhi, India, 1990.Google Scholar
Broomfield, J.H., Elite Conflict in Plural Society, University of California Press, California, Berkeley, 1968.Google Scholar
Chandra, Bipin, ‘Communalism and the National Movement’, in Hasan, Mushirul (ed), Communal and Pan-Islamic Trends in Colonial India, Manohar, Delhi, India, 1981.Google Scholar
Chatterjee, Partha, ‘The Second Partition of Bengal’, in Samaddar, Ranabir (ed), Reflections on Partition in the East, Vikas Publishing House, Delhi, India, 1997.Google Scholar
Chatterjee, Partha, ‘History and Nationalization of Hinduism’, in Dalmia, Vasudha and Steitencron, Heinrich von (eds), Representing Hinduism: The Construction of Religious Traditions and National Identity, Sage, Delhi, India, 1995.Google Scholar
Chatterjee, Partha, ‘Bengal Politics and the Muslim Masses, 1920–46, in Hasan, Mushirul (ed), India's Partition: Process, Strategy and Mobilization, Oxford University Press, Delhi, India, 1993.Google Scholar
Chatterji, Joya, Bengal Divided: Hindu Communalism and Partition, 1932–1947, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1994.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatterji, Joya, ‘The Decline, Revival and Fall of Bhadralok Influence in the 1990s: A Historiographic Review’, in Bandhyopadhyay, Sekhar (ed), Bengal: Rethinking History, Essays in Historiography, Manohar, Delhi, India, 2001.Google Scholar
Das, Suranjan, Communal Riots in Bengal 1905–1947, Oxford University Press, Delhi, India, 1991.Google Scholar
Das, Suranjan and Bandhyopadhyay, Sekhar, Caste and Communal Politics in South Asia, K.P. Bagchi & Co, Calcutta, India, 1993.Google Scholar
De, Amalendu, ‘Fazlul Huq and His Reaction to the Two-Nation Theory (1940–47)’, Bengal Past and Present, XCIII (175), Jan–Apr 1974.Google Scholar
Freitag, Sandria B., Collective Action and Community: Public Arenas and the Emergence of Communalism in North India, University of California Press, California, Berkeley, 1989.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gandhi, Rajmohan, Understanding the Muslim Mind, Penguin, Delhi, India, 1988.Google Scholar
Ghosh, Shyamali, ‘Fazlul Haq and Muslim Politics in Pre-partition Bengal’, International Studies, 13 (3), July–Sept 1974.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, Leonard, Brothers Against the Raj: A Biography of Indian Nationalists Sarat and Subhas Chandra Bose, Columbia University Press, New York, 1990.Google Scholar
Gordon, Leonard, Bengal: The Nationalist Movement 1876–1940, Columbia University Press, New York, 1973.Google Scholar
Gordon, Leonard, ‘Divided Bengal: Problems of Nationalism and Identity in the 1947 Partition’, in Hasan, Mushirul (ed), India's Partition: Process, Strategy and Mobilization, Oxford University Press, Delhi, India, 1993.Google Scholar
Hasan, Mushirul (ed) Inventing Boundaries: Gender, Politics and the Partition of India, Oxford University Press, Delhi, India, 2000.Google Scholar
Hasan, Mushirul, ‘Communalism in the Provinces: A Case Study of Bengal and the Punjab 1922–26’, in Hasan, Mushirul (ed), Communal and Pan-Islamic Trends in Colonial India, Manohar, Delhi, India, 1981.Google Scholar
Jalal, Ayesha, Self and Sovereignty: Individual and Community in South Asian Islam Since 1850, Routledge, London, 2000.Google Scholar
Jalal, Ayesha, The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, The Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jalal, Ayesha, ‘Exploding Communalism: The Politics of Muslim Identity in South Asia’, in Bose, Sugata and Jalal, Ayesha (eds), Nationalism, Democracy and Development: State and Politics in India, Oxford University Press, Delhi, India, 1997.Google Scholar
Jalal, Ayesha and Seal, Anil, ‘Alternative to Partition: Muslim Politics Between the Wars’, Modern Asian Studies, 15 (3), 1981, pp. 415–454.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kabir, Humayun, Muslim Politics 1906–1947 and Other Essays, K.L. Mukhopadhyay, Calcutta, India, 1969.Google Scholar
Kamal, Kazi Ahmed, Politicians and Inside Stories: A Glimpse Into the Lives of Fazlul Huq, Shaheed Suhrawardy and Moulana Bhashani, Kazi Giasuddin Ahmed, Dacca, Bangladesh, 1970.Google Scholar
Lahiri, Pradip Kumar, Bengali Muslim Thought (1818–1947): Its Liberal and Rational Trends, K.P. Bagchi & Co, Calcutta, India, 1989.Google Scholar
Momen, Humaira, Muslim Politics in Bengal: A Study of Krishak Praja Party and the Elections of 1937, Sunny House, Dacca, Bangladesh, 1972.Google Scholar
Moore, R.J., ‘Jinnah and the Pakistan Demand’, in Hasan, Mushirul (ed), India's Partition: Process, Strategy and Mobilization, Oxford University Press, Delhi, India, 1993.Google Scholar
Murshid, Tazeen M., The Sacred and the Secular: Bengal Muslim Discourses, 1871–1977, Oxford University Press, Calcutta, India, 1995.Google Scholar
Pandey, Gyanendra, The Construction of Communalism in Colonial North India, Oxford University Press, Delhi, India, 1990.Google Scholar
Rab, Abur, A. K. Fazlul Haq: Life and Achievements, Lahore, Pakistan, n.d.Google Scholar
Rahim, Enayetur, Provincial Autonomy in Bengal (1937–1943), Dacca, Bangladesh, 1981.Google Scholar
Rai, Mridu, Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects: Islam, Rights and the History of Kashmir, Princeton University Press, NJ, 2004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rashid, Harun-ur-, The Foreshadowing of Bangladesh: Bengal Muslim League and Muslim Politics 1936–1947, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, Dacca, Bangladesh, 1987.Google Scholar
Robinson, Francis, Separatism Among Indian Muslims: The Politics of the United Provinces’ Muslims, 1860–1923, Cambridge University Press, London, 1974.Google Scholar
Robinson, Francis, ‘Nation Formation: The Brass Thesis and Muslim Separatism’, in Jeffrey, Robin (ed), India: Rebellion to Republic—Selected Writings, 1857–1990, Sterling, Delhi, India, 1990.Google Scholar
Roy, Asim, ‘The High Politics of India's Partition: The Revisionist Perspective’, in Hasan, Mushirul (ed), India's Partition: Process, Strategy and Mobilization, Oxford University Press, Delhi, India, 1993.Google Scholar
Roy, Asim, ‘Being and Becoming a Muslim: A Historiographic Perspective on the Search for Muslim Identity’, in Bandhyopadhyay, Sekhar (ed), Bengal: Rethinking History, Essays in Historiography, Manohar, Delhi, India, 2001.Google Scholar
Sanaullah, Muhammad, A.K. Fazlul Huq: Portrait of a Leader, Kazi Anwar Hossain, Chittagong, Bangladesh, 1975.Google Scholar
Saxena, N.C., ‘Historiography of Communalism in India, in Hasan, Mushirul (ed), Communal and Pan-Islamic Trends in Colonial India, Manohar, Delhi, India, 1981.Google Scholar
Sen, Shila, Muslim Politics in Bengal 1937–1947, Impex India, Delhi, India, 1977.Google Scholar
Shaikh, Farzana, ‘Muslims and Political Representation in Colonial India: The Making of Pakistan’, Modern Asian Studies, 20 (3), 1986, pp. 539–557.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Talbot, Ian, Provincial Politics and the Pakistan Movement of the Muslim League in North-West and North-East India 1937–47, Oxford University Press, Karachi, Pakistan, 1988.Google Scholar
Yusuf, Kaniz F., Akhtar, M.S. and Razi Easti, S. (eds), Pakistan Resolution Revisited, National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research, Islamabad, Pakistan, 1990.Google Scholar
Zaheer, Hasan, The Separation of East Pakistan: The Rise and Realization of Bengali Muslim Nationalism, Oxford University Press, Karachi, Pakistan, 1994.Google Scholar
Zutshi, Chitralekha, Languages of Belonging: Islam, Regional Identity and the Making of Kashmir, Oxford University Press, Delhi, India, 2004.Google Scholar