Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-dnltx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-23T07:05:25.735Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Pipes and politics: a century of change and continuity in Kenyan urban water supply*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 January 2008

David Nilsson  and
Ezekiel Nyangeri Nyanchaga
David Nilsson*
Affiliation:
Department of Philosophy and the History of Technology, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden [POB 145, 00621 V. Market, Nairobi, Kenya]
Ezekiel Nyangeri Nyanchaga*
Affiliation:
Department of Civil & Construction Engineering, University of Nairobi, POB 30197, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
*
Email: david.nilsson@infra.kth.se
Email: enyangeri@uonbi.ac.ke
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Major institutional reforms are currently under way to improve the performance of the public water sector in Kenya. However, a historical perspective is needed in order to achieve sustainable improvements that will also benefit the urban poor. This article seeks to provide such a perspective, applying a cross-disciplinary and socio-technical approach to urban water supply over the last century, in which institutions, organisations and technology are seen to interact with political, economic and demographic processes. Despite a series of reforms over the years, the socio-technical structure of the urban water sector in Kenya has shown a remarkable stability since the 1920s, and into the 1980s. However, the sustainability of the public service systems has been eroded since independence, due to changes in the institutional framework surrounding the systems, while exclusive standards and technological choices have essentially been preserved from the colonial era. Current sector reform must create incentives for addressing technology choices and service standards in order to provide public water services also for the urban poor.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of Modern African Studies , Volume 46 , Issue 1 , March 2008 , pp. 133 - 158
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

This study has been carried out in collaboration between the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) and the University of Nairobi, under authorisation from the Kenya Ministry of Education. We wish to thank Sida/SAREC and the Academy of Finland for their financial support.

References

REFERENCES

African Population and Health Research Centre (APHRC). 2002. Population and Health Dynamics in Nairobi's Informal Settlements. Nairobi: APHRC.Google Scholar
Barkan, J. D. & Chege, M.. 1989. ‘Decentralising the state: district focus and the politics of reallocation in Kenya’, Journal of Modern African Studies 27, 3: 431–53.Google Scholar
Bayliss, K. 2003. ‘Utility privatisation in sub-Saharan Africa: a case study of water’, Journal of Modern African Studies 41, 4: 507–31.Google Scholar
Belli, P. 1997. ‘The comparative advantage of government’, Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
British East Africa Protectorate [BEAP]. 1907. Report on the sanitation of Nairobi and Report on the Townships of Naivasha, Nakuru and Kisumu, by G. Bransby Williams. KNA: GP 363.7 BRI.Google Scholar
BEAP. 1915. Nakuru District Commissioner, Annual Report 1914–1915. KNA: DC/NKU/1/1.Google Scholar
BEAP. 1916a. Public Works Department, Letter from director of PWD, Mr Ross, to Chief Secretary, dated 29.09.1916, Draft Water legislation. KNA: AG/43/76.Google Scholar
BEAP. 1916b. Nakuru District Commissioner, Annual Report 1915–1916. KNA: DC/NKU/1/1.Google Scholar
Budds, J. & McGranahan, G.. 2003. ‘Are the debates on water privatisation missing the point? Experiences from Africa, Asia and Latin America’, Environment and Urbanisation 15, 2: 87–113.Google Scholar
Chatzis, K. 1999. ‘Designing and operating storm water drain systems: empirical findings and conceptual developments’, in Coutard, O. ed. The Governance of Large Technical Systems. London: Routledge, 73–90.Google Scholar
Chege, M. 1973. ‘Systems management and the plan implementation process in Kenya’, African Review 3, 4: 595–610.Google Scholar
Cohen, J. M. 1993. ‘Importance of public service reform: the case of Kenya’, Journal of Modern African Studies 31, 3: 449–76.Google Scholar
Collier, P. & Gunning, J. W.. 1999. ‘Explaining African economic performance’, Journal of Economic Literature, 37, 1: 64–111.Google Scholar
Collignon, B. & Vézina, M.. 2000. ‘Independent water and sanitation providers in African cities: full report of a ten-country study’. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Colonial Office. 1950a. Annual Report on the Colony and Protectorate of Kenya for the year 1948. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Colonial Office. 1950b. Report on the Colony and Protectorate of Kenya for the year 1949. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Colonial Office. 1959. Report on the Colony and Protectorate of Kenya for the year 1958. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Colony and Protectorate of Kenya [CPK]. 1925. Loan for Nairobi Corporation, Municipal loan. KNA: AG 23/130.Google Scholar
CPK. 1927. Report of the Local Government Commission 1927. Vol. 1, Nairobi and its Environs and Mombasa and its Environs. KNA: K. 352.Google Scholar
CPK. 1929. Water Ordinance 1929. Official Gazette, 31 Dec 1929 (AG/43/79).Google Scholar
CPK. 1930. Report for 1929. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
CPK. 1933. Annual Report on the Social and Economic Progress of the People of the Kenya Colony and Protectorate 1931. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
CPK. 1935. The Official Gazette, 25 June 1935. KNA: AG/43/79.Google Scholar
CPK. 1945. Report on Augmentation of Water Supply for the Nairobi Municipal Area. Government Printer, Nairobi. KNA: BV/19/295.Google Scholar
CPK. 1950. Public Works Department, Hydraulic Branch, Annual Report for 1950. KNA: BY/138/18.Google Scholar
CPK. 1953a. The Water (General) Rules, Official Gazette Supplement No. 52, 2 July 1953. KNA: K 333.91.Google Scholar
CPK. 1953b. The Water Undertakers' Rules, Official Gazette Supplement No. 31, 26 May 1953. KNA: K 333.91.Google Scholar
CPK. 1956. Report of the Commissioner for Local Government for the year 1956. KNA: K 352. 0676 0005 KEN.Google Scholar
CPK. 1957. Sessional Paper No.98 of 1957. The Manzoni Report on the Public Works Department. KNA: MSS/66/111.Google Scholar
CPK. 1961. Ministry of Works, Hydraulic Branch, Memo dated 1961-02-09. KNA: BY 35/16.Google Scholar
Crocker, K. J. & Masten, S. E.. 2000. ‘Prospects for private provision in developing countries: lessons from 19th century America’. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Curry, R. L. & Rothchild, D.. 1980. ‘The fiscal costs of a basic human needs strategy’, Journal of Modern African Studies 18, 1: 143–50.Google Scholar
Drangert, J. O., Okotto-Okotto, J., Okotto, L. G. O. & Auko, O.. 2002. ‘Going small when the city grows big: new options for water supply and sanitation in rapidly expanding urban areas’, Water International 27, 3: 354–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
East African Standard (Nairobi). 2005. Online article dated 5.04.2005, accessed 31.8.2006. http://www.eastandard.net/archives/cl/mags/fs/news.php?articleid=17116Google Scholar
Ertsen, M. 2005. ‘Prescribing perfection: emergence of an engineering irrigation design approach in the Netherlands East Indies and its legacy 1830–1990’, Delft University, Doctoral Thesis.Google Scholar
Fieldhouse, D. K. 1999. The West and the Third World: trade, colonialism, dependence, and development. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Furedi, F. 1973. ‘The African crowd in Nairobi: popular movements and elite politics’, Journal of African History 14, 2: 275–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gleick, P. H., Wolff, G., Chalecki, E. L. & Reyes, R.. 2002. The New Economy of Water: the risks and benefits of globalization and privatization of fresh water. Oakland, CA: Pacific Institute. http://www.pacinst.org/reports/new_economy_of_water/, accessed 07.10.2007.Google Scholar
Government of Kenya [GoK]. 1964. Development Plan 1964–1970. Nairobi.Google Scholar
GoK. 1965. Ministry of Natural Resources and Wildlife, ‘The Organisation of Water Development: notes for guidance of Provincial Water Advisory Committees’, KNA: DC/KMG/2/26/39.Google Scholar
Green, R. H. 1965. ‘Four African development plans: Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya and Tanzania’, Journal of Modern African Studies 3, 2: 249–79.Google Scholar
Hifab International. 1988. Ministry of Development Cooperation NORAD, Report of Appraisal mission: Minor Urban Water Supply programme, 1988–92. Stockholm.Google Scholar
Howard Humphreys. 1986. Nairobi City Commission, Water and Sewerage Department, Third Nairobi Water supply project, Distribution System Short Term Plan to 1995. Volume 1. Nairobi.Google Scholar
Hukka, J. & Katko, T. eds. 2003. Water Privatisation Revisited: panacea or pancake? Delft: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre.Google Scholar
Hukka, J., Katko, T. & Seppälä, O.. 1992. ‘Kenya water sector: a position paper’, Tampere: University of Technology.Google Scholar
Hydén, G. 1983. No Shortcuts to Progress: African development management in perspective. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Kaijser, A. 1994. I fädrens spår: den svenska infrastrukturens historiska utveckling och framtida utmaningar. Stockholm: Carlssons förlag.Google Scholar
Kaijser, A. 2003. ‘Redirecting infrasystems towards sustainability’, in Biel, A., Hansson, B. & Mårtensson, M. eds. Individual and Structural Determinants of Environmental Practice. Aldershot: Ashgate, 152–79.Google Scholar
Katui-Katua, M. & McGranahan, G.. 2002. ‘Public-private partnerships and the poor: small enterprises and water provision in Kibera, Nairobi’, WEDC, Loughborough University.Google Scholar
Kjellén, M. & McGranahan, G.. 1997. ‘Urban water: towards health and sustainability’, Stockholm: Stockholm Environment Institute.Google Scholar
Levy, B. 2004. ‘Governance and economic development in Africa: meeting the challenge of capacity building’, in Levy, B. & Kpundeh, S. eds. Building State Capacity in Africa: new approaches, emerging lessons. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Leys, C. 1979. ‘Development strategy in Kenya since 1971’, Canadian Journal of African Studies 13, 1/2: 295–320.Google Scholar
Lobina, E. & Hall, D.. 2000. ‘Public sector alternatives to water supply and sewerage privatization: case studies’, Water Resources Development 16, 1: 35–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matrix Development Consultants. 1993. ‘Nairobi's informal settlements: an inventory, for USAID/REDSO/ESA’, Nairobi: unpublished consultancy report.Google Scholar
McGranahan, G. 2002. Demand-side Water Strategies and the Urban Poor. London: IIED.Google Scholar
Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI). 2004. The National Water Services Strategy (2005–2007). Nairobi: MWI.Google Scholar
Mitullah, W. V. 1999. ‘A review and critique of urban housing policy in Kenya: 1963–1995’, in Ng'ethe, N. & Owino, W. eds. From Sessional Paper No 10 to Structural Adjustment: towards indigenising the policy debate. Nairobi: Institute of Policy Analysis and Research, 219–39.Google Scholar
Mombasa Pipeline Board [MPB]. 1962. Report and Accounts for Financial Year Ending 30th June, 1962. KNA: ACW 33/13.Google Scholar
Morgan, W. T. W. 1969. ‘Urbanization in Kenya: origins and trends’, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 46, 167–78.Google Scholar
Muwonge, J. W. 1980. ‘Urban policy and patterns of low-income settlement in Nairobi, Kenya’, Population and Development Review 6, 4: 595–613.Google Scholar
Mwangi, E. & Gitau, M. J.. 2003. ‘The Water Act (2002): a regulatory minefield’, Briefing Papers 3/2003, Nairobi: Kenya Leadership Institute.Google Scholar
Nilsson, D. 2005. ‘The evolution of urban water and sanitation in East Africa from a public goods perspective’, in Tempelhoff, J. W. N. ed. African Water Histories: trans-disciplinary discourses. University of the Northwest, Vereeniging, South Africa, 317–45.Google Scholar
Nilsson, D. 2006. ‘A heritage of unsustainability? Reviewing the origin of the large-scale water and sanitation system in Kampala, Uganda’, Environment & Urbanization 18, 2: 369–85.Google Scholar
North, D. C. 2005. Understanding the Process of Economic Change. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Nyangeri, E. N. 2003a. ‘Scope for public–private partnerships in WSS services in Kenya’, in Hukka, & Katko, eds. Water Privatisation Revisited, 66–74.Google Scholar
Nyangeri, E. N. 2003b. ‘Barriers to and conditions for the involvement of private capital and enterprise in water supply and sanitation in Latin America and Africa: seeking economic, social, and environmental sustainability, Baseline report D2 Kenya’. Prinwass, Fifth Framework Programme 1998–2002: INCO2 – Research for Development, European Commission: unpublished research report.Google Scholar
Nyangeri, E. N. 2004. ‘Barriers to and conditions for the involvement of private capital and enterprise in water supply and sanitation in Latin America and Africa: seeking economic, social, and environmental sustainability: Strategic Country Report Kenya’, Prinwass, INCO2 – Research for Development, European Commission.Google Scholar
Obudho, R. A. & Obudho, Rose A.. 1992. ‘The colonial urban development through space and time 1895–1963’, in Ochieng, W. R. & Maxon, R. M. eds. An Economic History of Kenya. Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers, 147–58.Google Scholar
Ochieng, W. R. 1995. ‘Structural & political changes’, in Ogot, B. A. & Ochieng, W. R. eds. Decolonisation & Independence in Kenya 1940–93. London: James Currey, 83–109.Google Scholar
Odira, P. M. A. & Nyangeri, E. N.. 1994. ‘Water and sanitation services in low-income areas of Nairobi, Kenya’, in Sandelin, S. ed. Low-income Area Water Supply and Sanitation in selected African Cities. Tampere: Tampere University of Technology.Google Scholar
Onjala, J. O. 1999. ‘Economic growth and development in Kenya since independence’, in Ng'ethe, N. & Owino, W. eds. From Sessional Paper No. 10 to Structural Adjustment: towards indigenising the policy debate. Nairobi: Institute of Policy Analysis and Research, 55–92.Google Scholar
Orgut. 2006. ‘Kenya Water and Sanitation Programme: the transfer plan, progress gaps and recommendations’. Nairobi: unpublished consultancy report.Google Scholar
Ostrom E., L., Schroeder & Wynne, S.. 1993. Institutional Incentives and Sustainable Development: infrastructure policies in perspective. Boulder, CO: Westview.Google Scholar
Ostrom, E. & Walker, J.. 1997. ‘Neither markets nor states: linking transformation processes in collective action arenas’, in Mueller, D. ed. Perspectives on Public Choice. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Republic of Kenya [RoK]. 1965. African Socialism and its Application to Planning in Kenya. Sessional Paper No. 10. Nairobi.Google Scholar
RoK. 1966. Development Plan 1966–1970. Nairobi.Google Scholar
RoK. 1969a. Building code. Local government regulations 1963: The Local Government Adoptive By-Laws Building Order 1968 and The Local Government Adoptive By-Laws Grade II Building Order 1968. Nairobi.Google Scholar
RoK. 1969b. Development Plan 1970–1974. Nairobi.Google Scholar
RoK. 1969c. Nairobi City Council, City Engineer. Mathare Valley. KNA: RN/6/21.Google Scholar
RoK. 1972a. Laws of Kenya, The Water Act, Chapter 372 (including The Water Undertaker Rules, subsidiary to Cap 372). Nairobi: Government Printer.Google Scholar
RoK. 1972b. Plan Performance and Expectation 1969–74, Part 1, Presented for discussion at Consultative Group meetings in Paris April 1972. Nairobi. Nordic Africa Institute library, Uppsala.Google Scholar
RoK. 1974. Development Plan 1974–1978. Part 1. Nairobi.Google Scholar
RoK. 1978. Minor Urban Water Supply programme, Progress Report 1st July 1977–31 December 1977. Ministry of Water Development (private archive).Google Scholar
RoK. 1979. Development Plan 1979–83. Part 1. Nairobi.Google Scholar
RoK. 1983a. Development Plan 1984–1988. Nairobi.Google Scholar
RoK. 1983b. Water Use Study, Draft Main Report. Ministry of Water Development. Nordic Africa Institute library, Uppsala.Google Scholar
RoK. 1984. Ministry of Water Development, Water Use and Tariff study. Nairobi.Google Scholar
RoK. 1994. Development Plan 1994–1996. Nairobi.Google Scholar
Royal East Africa Commission [REAC]. 1955. Report. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Satterthwaite, D. 2003. ‘The Millenium Development Goals and urban poverty reduction: great expectations and nonsense statistics’, Environment & Urbanization 15, 2: 181–90.Google Scholar
Sharp, A. M. & Jetha, N. M.. 1970. ‘Central government grants to local authorities: a case study of Kenya’, African Studies Review 13, 1: 43–56.Google Scholar
Shirley, M. M. 2000. ‘The politics and economics of reforming urban water systems’, Conference on Political Institutions and Economic Growth in Latin America, Stanford University, 14–15.04.2000.Google Scholar
Southall, R. & Wood, G.. 1996. ‘Local government and the return to multi-partyism in Kenya’, African Affairs 95, 381: 501–27.Google Scholar
Stamp, P. 1986. ‘Local government in Kenya: ideology and political practice, 1895–1974’, African Studies Review 29, 4: 17–42.Google Scholar
Stren, R. 1972. ‘Urban policy in Africa: a political analysis’, African Studies Review 15: 3, 489–516.Google Scholar
Stren, R. 1975. ‘Urban policy and performance in Kenya and Tanzania’, Journal of Modern African Studies 13, 2: 267–94.Google Scholar
Swamy, G. 1994. Kenya: structural adjustment in the 1980s. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
SWECO. 1973. City Council of Nairobi, Nairobi Sewerage and Groundwater survey, Part II, organization, management, finance and legislation report. Stockholm & Nairobi. KNA: GP 628.2058 NAI.Google Scholar
Thompson, J., Porras, I. T., Wood, E., Tumwine, J. K., Mujwahuzi, M. R., Katui-Katua, M. & Johnstone, N.. 2000. ‘Waiting at the tap: changes in urban water use in East Africa over three decades’, Environment & Urbanization 12, 2: 37–52.Google Scholar
Thompson, J., Porras, I. T., Tumwine, J. K., Mujwahuzi, M. R., Katui-Katua, M., Johnstone, N. & Wood, L.. 2001. Drawers of Water II: 30 years of change in domestic water use & environmental health in East Africa. London: IIED.Google Scholar
United Nations Populations Division [UNPD]. 2006. Database webpage, accessed 29.09.2006. <http://esa.un.org/unpp/>>Google Scholar
Vaa, M. 1993. ‘Towards more appropriate technologies? Experiences from the water and sanitation sector’, Research Report No. 94. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.Google Scholar
van de Walle, N. 2003. ‘Presidentialism and clientelism in Africa's emerging party systems’, Journal of Modern African Studies, 41, 2: 297–321.Google Scholar
van Zwanenberg, R. M. A. & King, A.. 1975. An Economic History of Kenya and Uganda 1800–1970. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Werlin, H. H. 1966. ‘The Nairobi City Council: a study in comparative local government’, Comparative Studies in Society and History 8, 2: 181–98.Google Scholar
Werlin, H. H. 1973. ‘Nairobi's politics of housing’, African Review 3, 4: 611–30.Google Scholar
White, L., Thornton, W., Silberman, L. & Anderson, P. R.. 1948. Nairobi Master Plan for a Colonial Capital. London: HMSO. KNA: 711WHI.Google Scholar
Willis, J. 1995. ‘Men on the spot, labor, and the colonial state in British East Africa: the Mombasa water supply 1911–1917’, International Journal of African Historical Studies 28, 1: 25–48.Google Scholar
World Bank. 1994. World Development Report 1994: infrastructure for development. Washington, DC.Google Scholar
World Bank. 2003. World Development Report 2004: making services work for poor people. Washington, DC.Google Scholar
World Health Organisation [WHO]. 1963. ‘The organization for water development in Kenya, Report of a World Health Organisation Consultant Team’ (KNA): BY/138/43.Google Scholar
WHO. 1971. Sectoral Study and National Programming for Community and Rural Water Supply, Sewerage and Water Pollution Control. Report No. 1. General community water supply problems. Brazzaville: WHO.Google Scholar
WHO. 1972. Sectoral Study and National Programming for Community and Rural Water Supply, Sewerage and Water Pollution Control. Report No. 2. Recommendations on national programme for community water supply development. Brazzaville: WHO.Google Scholar
WHO. 1973. Sectoral Study and National Programming for Community and Rural Water Supply, Sewerage and Water Pollution Control. Report No. 12. Ten year development programme for community water supplies. Brazzaville: WHO.Google Scholar
WHO. 1975. ‘Report of the review mission for the water supply, sewerage and pollution control “sectoral study” for Kenya’. KNA: BY/33/72.Google Scholar
WHO & United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). 2004. Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target: a mid-term assessment of progress. New York: UNICEF & Geneva: WHO.Google Scholar