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Pacification and Patronage in the Maratha Deccan, 1803–1818*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 May 2016

MESROB VARTAVARIAN
MESROB VARTAVARIAN*
Affiliation:
University of Southern California, United States of America Email: vartavar@usc.edu
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Abstract

This article examines pacification operations conducted by British colonial armies throughout the Maratha Deccan from 1803 to 1818. The East India Company assembled concentrations of coercive force by extending patronage to loyalist elites and mobile war bands. Military contingents from allied princely states were mobilized and combined with a policy of brokerage intended to demobilize hostile forces holed up in forts or engaged in brigandage. Pacification through a mixture of negotiations and force ensured loyalist groups a privileged place in the emerging colonial order.

Type
Research Article
Information
Modern Asian Studies , Volume 50 , Issue 6 , November 2016 , pp. 1749 - 1791
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Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2016 

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Footnotes

*

I would like to thank Sujit Sivasundaram, Jon Wilson, David Washbrook, Joya Chatterji, and the anonymous reviewers at Modern Asian Studies for their comments and criticisms of previous drafts of this article. Its errors and oversights are mine alone.

References

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2 Kolff, D.H.A., ‘The end of an ancien regime: colonial war in India, 1798–1818’ in Imperialism and War: Essays on Colonial Wars in Asia and Africa, de Moore, J.A. and Wesseling, H.L. (eds), Brill, E.J., Leiden, 1989, pp. 22–49 Google Scholar.

3 For an extensive discussion of armed formations labelled ‘pindaris’ by indigenous polities and British colonial authorities, see below.

4 Poligars were warrior princes who commanded walled forts throughout southern India. For pacification campaigns in the Madras Presidency and Mysore state, see Vartavarian, M., ‘Warriors and the Company State in South India, 1799–1801’, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, vol. 37, no. 2, 2014, pp. 212–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 Much of this section derives from the insightful work of A. Wink, Land and Sovereignty in India: Agrarian Society and Politics Under the Eighteenth-century Maratha Svarājya, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986 Google Scholar, and Gordon, S., The Marathas 1600–1818, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 See Wink, Land and Sovereignty, passim, for a discussion of fitna (sedition) that led to political fragmentation.

7 Intelligence Report, date illegible, British Library, European Manuscripts (MSS Eur.) F151/39.

8 Arthur Wellesley to the Governor-General, 24 July 1802, British Library, Additional Manuscripts (Add. MSS) 13738.

9 Close to Lord Wellesley, 24 April 1803, Add. MSS 13739.

10 Lord Wellesley et al. to Lake, 15 January 1804, Add. MSS 13737.

11 Gerard to Lumsden, 22 June 1805, Add. MSS 13742.

12 Ibid.

13 Arthur Wellesley to the Secretary of Government, n.d., British Library, India Office Records (IOR), Bombay Military Council (BMC) P/354/32, ff. 4692–93.

14 Frith to Edmondstone, ? May 1803, Add. MSS 13738.

15 Alavi, S., The Sepoys and the Company: Tradition and Transition in North India 1770–1830, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1995, pp. 225–26, 232–33Google Scholar. My views complement Alavi's discussion of the gradual displacement of auxiliary war bands in the South Asian military economy by Bengal sepoys who associated with the colonial state in order to consolidate their socioeconomic privileges. Whereas Alavi is primarily concerned with core Company territories in North India, I have focused on frontier regions of British power which saw a more extensive co-option of warrior elites and princely states.

16 Arthur Wellesley to the Secretary of Government, 4 November 1803, IOR, BMC P/354/32, ff. 4652–59.

17 For a thorough investigation of provisioning during the Anglo-Maratha campaigns of 1803, see Cooper, R.G.S., ‘Beyond Beasts and Bullion: Economic Considerations in Bombay's Military Logistics, 1803’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 33, no. 1, 1999, pp. 159–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

18 Young to ?, 5 November 1803, IOR, BMC P/354/32, ff. 4601–04; Bunyon to Walker, 30 October 1803, ibid., ff. 4607–08; Skrine to Galley, 2 November 1803, ibid., f. 4613; Bunton to Walker, 5 November 1803, ibid., ff. 4643–45.

19 This section owes much to Peers, D.M., Between Mars and Mammon: Colonial Armies and the Garrison State in Early Nineteenth-century India, I.B. Taurus, London, 1995 Google Scholar.

20 Memorandum, IOR, Home Miscellaneous (HM) 89, No. 162, ff. 71, 78–79.

21 Ibid., ff. 82–3, 94–5.

22 Memorandum, IOR, HM 89, No. 202, ff. 249–51. For the mobilization of Mysore and other princely contingents as stipulated by contractual agreement during the 1817–1818 campaigns, see Elliott to the Nabob of Kurnool, 29 December 1817, IOR, Madras Country Correspondence (MCC) P/321/59, No. 26, and the Marquess of Hastings to the Maharajah of Mysore, 19 December 1817, IOR, MCC P/321/60, No. 5.

23 Memorandum, IOR, HM 89, No. 202, ff. 249–51.

24 Peons were generally defined as militia units that might or might not be permanent components of a military establishment.

25 Notices Relative to the Military Establishments of Native States, IOR, HM 89, No. 240, ff. 337–38.

26 Ibid., f. 341.

27 Memorandum, IOR, HM 89, No. 236, ff. 274–75, 277

28 The literature on pindaris remains thin. But useful impressions of their role in the South Asian military economy can be gleaned from Cooper, The Anglo-Maratha Campaigns, pp. 32–34, 42, 44, 49, 84–85, 303–04, and Gordon, S., Marathas, Marauders, and State Formation in Eighteenth-Century India, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1994, pp. 20–22, 114–15Google Scholar.

29 Malcolm, J., Memoir of Central India, 2 vols, Parbury, Allen and Co., London, 1832, Vol. 1, pp. 426–27Google Scholar.

30 Ibid., pp. 428–29.

31 Ibid.

32 Ibid., pp. 445, 462. For examples of how destructive and frequent these raids could be, see IOR, HM 520, No. 238, ff. 595–600.

33 Thorn, Maj. W., Memoir of the War in India Conducted by General Lord Lake Commander-in-Chief and Major-General Sir Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington; From its Commencement in 1803, to its Termination in 1806, On the Banks of the Hyphasis. . ., T. Egerton, London, 1818, pp. 346–47, 384Google Scholar.

34 Malcolm, Memoir, Vol. 2, p. 176.

35 Thorn, Memoir of the War, pp. 308–10.

36 For pindaris as Maratha auxiliaries, see Roy, M.P., Origin, Growth and Suppression of the Pindaris, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1973, pp. 4–9 Google Scholar.

37 Hardcastle to Aitcheson, 30 September 1812, MSS Eur. D666.

38 Holkar's chieftaincy was able to incorporate large numbers of armed men formerly employed by Shinde. Wellesley to Lake, 17 January 1804, IOR, HM 491, ff. 145, 152–53; Extract of a Letter from General Wellesley to the Governor-General, 30 December 1803, ibid., ff. 190–91; Minutes of Conversation between Lake and the Vakils of Holkar, 18 March 1804, ibid., ff. 222–23.

39 See Jenkins to Adam, 3 March 1814, IOR, HM 598, ff. 30–31; on the socio-political pressures that increased bandit incursions, see Edmondstone to Adam, 31 March 1814, ibid., ff. 44–56, 58.

40 Thackeray to the Judge and Magistrate of Cuddapah, 28 November 1811, IOR, Madras Police Committee (MPC) P/328/56, ff. 16–17, 21–22.

41 Ibid., f. 8

42 ? to the Chief Secretary of Government, 8 December 1812, IOR, MPC P/328/58, ff. 1257–58.

43 Tod to the Chief Secretary of Government, 26 May 1813, IOR, ibid., ff. 1206, 1211–13.

44 Russell to Doveton, 6 December 1816, National Army Museum (NAM), 1965-11-49-4; Russell to Adam, 23 January 1817, ibid.

45 McDowall's Memorandum, 23 August 1819, NAM, 1968-07-318; McDowall to Palmer, 20 October 1819, ibid.; McDowall to Palmer, 12 August 1820, ibid.

46 Thackeray to the Judge and Chief Magistrate of Cuddapah, 28 November 1811, IOR, MPC P/328/56, ff. 21–22.

47 Wright to the Secretary of Government, 21 December 1813, ibid., ff. 39–41.

48 For Mysore, see Strachey to Cole, 13 November 1814, IOR, HM 599, ff. 385–86; for Hyderabad and the southern jagirdars, see Moira to Elliott, 26 January 1815, IOR. HM 600, ff. 18, 20.

49 Extract of a Letter from the Commander-in-Chief, 11 April 1815, ibid., ff. 327–30; Strachey to Hislop, 26 April 1815, ibid., ff. 332–33.

50 Carnac to Warden, 18 April 1815, ibid., ff. 446–49.

51 Dalzell's Memorandum, 19 January 1816, IOR, HM 601, ff. 58–60; for quote, see Draught of a Letter addressed to Barnobe Rouling, a pensioner residing at Timmeracotta in Paulnad, n.d., ibid., ff. 62–64; J.A. Dalzell to the Secretary to Government in the Judicial Department, Fort St George, 12 March 1816, ibid., ff. 284–85.

52 Reports from Dalzell to the Secretary to Government in the Judicial Department, Fort St George, 13, 16, 18 March 1816, ibid., ff. 300–02, 368–69, 379–81.

53 Russell to Doveton, 19 March 1816, IOR, HM 602, ff. 60–62; Oakes to the Chief Secretary of Government, Fort St George, 21 March 1816, ibid., ff. 65–75; Stuart to the Judge and Magistrate of Guntur, 23 March 1816, ibid., ff. 127–28; Newnham to the Chief Secretary of Government, Fort St George, 22 March 1816, ibid., f. 94.

54 Ross to the President and Members of the Board of Revenue, Fort St George, 23 March 1816, ibid., ff. 138–39, 143–45; Newnham to the Chief Secretary of Government, Fort St George, 28 March 1816, ibid., ff. 163–66.

55 Ambrose to Grant, n.d., IOR, BMC P/357/11, ff. 4801–03; Shepard to Stannus, 27 January 1818, IOR, BMC P/357/16, ff. 1063–64. The native contractor argued that he should either be exempted from his monthly tax on ‘intoxicating drugs’ or be given 300 rupees to compensate for his loss. Company officials resolved that if his carts were bad or he could not keep up with troops on the march, he should suffer the consequences and he was denied compensation. See Minute by Prendergast, n.d., ibid., f. 1068.

56 ‘Settlement of the Bheels’, 13 April 1835, National Archives of India (NAI), Foreign Department, Political Consultations, nos. 25–27, ff. 1–5.

57 Newnham to the Secretary of Government, Fort St George, 3 April 1816, IOR, HM 602, ff. 313–15, 318–19, 323–25.

58 Hislop to Elliott, 10 July 1818, IOR, Madras Military Consultations (MMC) P/259/82, ff. 6895–99.

59 ? to the Marquess of Hastings, n.d., Add. MSS 23759, ff. 30–31.

60 Cradock to Bentinck, 29 June 1806, Bodleian Library, MS. Eng. c. 2737, ff. 6–7; Reynell to McKerras, 14 May 1806, ibid., ff. 2–3. For the debate on the origins and meaning of the Vellore mutiny, see Hoover, J.W., Men Without Hats: Dialogue, Discipline, and Discontent in the Madras Army 1806–1807, Manohar, New Delhi, 2007 Google Scholar; Bayly, S., Saints, Goddesses, and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society, 1700–1900, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1989, pp. 224, 226–27Google Scholar.

61 Pierce to the Commander-in-Chief, 25 July 1806, Bodleian Library, MS. Eng. c. 2737, f. 22.

62 Court Martial Proceedings, 12 February 1813, IOR, HM 702, ff. 219–20. For the events of the Quilon mutiny of 1812, see the entire volume of IOR, HM 702 and HM 703, 704.

63 For a general narrative of the pindari campaign and its links to actions against the Marathas, see Roy, Origin, pp. 232–51, 260–90.

64 Minute by N.B. Edmondstone, 29 April 1814, IOR, HM 598, ff. 243–47.

65 Malcolm to Elphinstone, 5 November 1817, MSS Eur. F88/402, ff. 109–10. Thomas Munro considered Company military action to be an essential precondition for bringing order to the southern Maratha country, a region long in the grips of anarchy brought about by turbulent feudatories. See Munro to Elphinstone, 28 August 1818, MSS Eur. F88/383, f. 67.

66 Nepean to the Honourable Chairman of the East India Company, 5 November 1815, MSS Eur. D1095.

67 Pottinger to Nepean, 26 November 1817, ibid., underlining in original.

68 Cumming to Jenkins, 23 August 1818, Add. MSS 23757, ff. 36–37.

69 Elphinstone to Edmondstone, 26 October 1810, MSS Eur. F88/378, ff. 34–36.

70 Elphinstone to Smith, 6 December 1817, MSS Eur. F88/402, ff. 28–29.

71 Malcolm to the Duke of Wellington, 8 July 1818, IOR, HM 733, ff. 306–07.

72 Ibid., f. 308.

73 Malcolm to Elphinstone, 12 July 1818, ibid., ff. 317–18.

74 Russell to Adam, 10 January 1818, IOR, MMC P/259/73, f. 1800.

75 Abstract of Orders on Criminal Justice and Police, n.d., MSS Eur. F88/407, ff. 150–52; Elphinstone to Robertson, 26 February 1818, ibid., ff. 180–82, 185–86.

76 Swanston's Biography, NAM, 1979-01-76-26.

77 Nightingall to ?, 24 September 1817, IOR, BMC P/357/10, ff. 4333–35.

78 General Order by Government, 28 November 1817, IOR, BMC P/357/12, ff. 5519–21.

79 Morison to Urquhart, 27 December 1817, IOR, BMC P/357/14, ff. 81–82; Nightingall to ?, 13 January 1818, ibid., ff. 197–98.

80 Bellasis to Chief Secretary Warden, 25 February 1818, IOR, BMC P/357/16, f. 1005; Conway to the Chief Secretary of Government, 24 August 1818, IOR, MMC P/260/2, f. 8347.

81 Pierce to Bellasis, 18 October 1817, IOR, BMC P/357/11, ff. 4808–09.

82 Committee for Investigation of Pensions, 2 September 1817, IOR, MMC P/259/60, ff. 6923–24.

83 Lewis to Carnac, 24 January 1818, IOR, BMC P/357/15, ff. 459–61.

84 Babington to ?, 12 January 1818, IOR, BMC P/357/14, ff. 195–97.

85 Nightingall to the Board, 29 November 1817, IOR, BMC P/357/12, ff. 5308–09.

86 Nightingall to ?, 31 January 1818, IOR, BMC P/357/15, ff. 481–83.

87 Babington to the Chief Secretary, 12 January 1818, IOR, BMC P/357/14, ff. 231–32. Sepoy veterans made up the ranks of several militias. Nightingall to the Board, 23 March 1818, IOR, BMC P/357/17, ff. 1529–30.

88 Adam to Marshall, 5 October 1817, Add. MSS 23758, ff. 14–15; Marshall to Nicol, 21 November 1817, ibid., f. 39; Marshall to Nicol, 1 December 1817, ibid., f. 44; for Beniack Rao's pension, see Wauchope to Benaick Rao, 6 March 1818, Add. MSS 23761, ff. 17–19; on the Bundelas, see Adam to Wauchope, 6 October 1817, ibid., ff. 7–10.

89 Nicol to Ochterlony, 9 February 1818, Add. MSS 23755, ff. 36–37; Pelly to the Chief Secretary, 9 January 1818, IOR, BMC P/357/14, f. 349.

90 Conway to the Chief Secretary, 13 April 1818, IOR, MMC P/259/77, f. 4368.

91 Taylor to the Commissary General, 25 January 1818, IOR, MMC P/259/73, ff. 1959–60.

92 Hamilton to Ochterlony, 24 April 1818, NAI, Military Department (MD), Miscellaneous Records (MR), no. 6, ff. 1160–70.

93 Stein, B., Thomas Munro: The Origins of the Colonial State and His Vision of Empire, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1989, Chapter 6Google Scholar; for Munro's appointment, see Young to Hislop, 20 October 1817, MSS Eur. F151/38.

94 Gleig, G.R., The Life of Major-General Thomas Munro. . ., 3 vols, H. Colburn and R. Bentley, London, 1830, Vol. 2, pp. 266–67Google Scholar.

95 Lindsay to Munro, 21 December 1817, MSS Eur. F151/38.

96 Munro to Agnew, 18 January 1818, MSS Eur. F151/40. Munro felt that if campaigning had begun a month later there would have been no enemy revenue left for Company forces to collect.

97 Memorandum on the Military Peons, 20 January 1818, MSS Eur. F151/57.

98 Munro to Elphinstone, 20 July 1817, MSS Eur. F151/40.

99 Gleig, Munro, Vol. 3, p. 224.

100 Nicol to Ochterlony, 27 March 1818, Add, MSS 23755, ff. 54–56.

101 Gleig, Munro, Vol. 3, pp. 253–54.

102 Ibid., p. 256.

103 Munro to Conway, 14 April 1818, MSS Eur. F151/40.

104 Lake, E., Journals of the Sieges of the Madras Army in the Years 1817, 1818, and 1819 with Observations on the System According to Which Such Operations Have Usually Been Conducted in India and Statement of Improvements that Appear Necessary, Kingsbury, Parbury and Allen, London, 1825, p. 97 Google Scholar.

105 Nepean to Elphinstone, 8 January 1818, MSS Eur. D1095.

106 Donkin to the Marquess of Hastings, 17 December 1817, Add. MSS 23759, ff. 17–18.

107 McDowell to the Adjutant General, 17 June 1818, IOR, MMC P/259/83, ff. 7368–69.

108 Gleig, Munro, Vol. 3, pp. 288–90.

109 McDowell to the Assistant Adjutant General, 10 June 1818, IOR, MMC P/259/83, ff. 7362–63.

110 Dickson to Brooks, 1 February 1818, IOR, BMC P/357/16, ff. 904–05.

111 Prother to Leighton, 15 March 1818, IOR, BMC P/357/17, ff. 1450–51.

112 Nightingall to the Board, 3 March 1818, IOR, BMC P/357/16, ff. 1252–53.

113 Lake, Journals, pp. 10–11, 108–09; Prother to Leighton, 15 February 1818, IOR, BMC P/357/15, ff. 815–18.

114 Lake, Journals, pp. 53–55.

115 Ibid., p. 57; see also East India Company, Pindarree and Maharatta War, 1817 and 1818: Claims of the Marquis of Hastings and the Grand Army (Appendix), London, 1824, pp. 244–45Google Scholar; Hislop to Elliott, 28 February 1818, IOR, MMC P/259/74, ff. 2763–64.

116 Bevan to Adams, 22 May 1818, Add. MSS 23762, ff. 27–29; for shares of prize money due to the men of His Majesty's 25th Light Dragoons, see Wood to Craigie, 31 January 1818, IOR, MMC P/259/77, f. 4285.

117 Munro to Elphinstone, 3 February 1818, MSS Eur. F151/40.

118 Bowler to Simons, 21 May 1818, IOR, MMC P/259/80, ff. 5760–62.

119 Metcalfe to Stoneham, 7 December 1819, IOR, Board's Collections (BC) F/4/787/21392, ff. 21–22; on resettlement policies toward pindari chiefs more generally, see Roy, Origin, pp. 297–307.

120 Ricketts to Newnham, 23 April 1818, IOR, BC F/4/729/19772, f. 11; Newnham to Ricketts, 19 May 1818, ibid., f. 25.

121 Extract of a Political Letter from Bengal, 12 September 1823, IOR, BC F/4/830/21971, ff. 1–2.

122 Bayly, C.A., Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1770–1870, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996, pp. 160, 176Google Scholar; Singha, Radhika, ‘Providential Circumstances. The Thugee Campaign of the 1830s and Legal Innovation’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 27, no. 1, 1993, pp. 97–102 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

123 Malcolm to Doveton, 5 June 1818, MSS Eur. C854; John Malcolm to Francis Warden, 4 July 1818, ibid.

124 Gleig, Munro, Vol. 2, pp. 270–71.

125 Bellasis to Chief Secretary Warden, 11 March 1818, IOR, BMC P/357/17, ff. 1410–13; for attempts to monopolize the supply of horses from the northwest, see Baker to Bellasis, 4 November 1818, IOR, BMC P/357/11, ff. 4885–86.

126 Petition of Razaram Tooleram and Raguooath Khushall, 25 August 1817, IOR, BMC P/357/10, ff. 4428–31.

127 Petition of Sadnundrow, 8 November 1817, IOR, BMC P/357/11, ff. 4955–56.

128 Varady, R.G., ‘North Indian Banjaras: Their Evolution as Transporters’, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, vol. 2, no. 1–2, 1979, pp. 1–18 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

129 Satya, L.D., ‘Colonial Sedentarisation and Subjugation: The Case of the Banjaras of Berar 1850–1900’, The Journal of Peasant Studies, vol. 24, no. 4, 1997, pp. 314–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar; on the role of indigenous haulers during the Second Anglo-Maratha War, see Cooper, The Anglo-Maratha Campaigns, pp. 25, 75, 88, 95, 98, 192.

130 Morris to the Adjutant General of the Army, 24 September 1817, IOR, BMC P/357/10, f. 4433; Holt to Hislop, 14 November 1817, IOR, MMC P/259/74, ff. 2598–99; for raids by dacoits on the supply trains of subsidiary forces, see Carfrae to Doveton, 12 April 1817, IOR, MMC P/259/75, ff. 3011–12.

131 Robertson to Brigadier General Smith, 1 February 1818, IOR, BMC P/357/15, ff. 548–49; Marriott to Robertson, 3 February 1818, ibid., ff. 764–66.

132 The largest number of pensions were granted to those who had provided military intelligence. ? to Metcalfe, 28 October 1819, MSS Eur. F88/407, ff. 34–35.

133 Extract from General Orders, Bombay Head Quarters, 11 July 1810, MSS Eur. D666.

134 Malcolm to Adam, 23 June 1818, IOR, MMC P/260/1, ff. 8024–29.

135 Malcolm to Young, ? May 1818, MSS Eur. F88/383, f. 3.

136 Ibid.

137 Ibid., ff. 3–4.

138 For a report on wages and the place of sepoy regiments in an enlarged Madras Presidency, see Conway to Wood, n.d., IOR, MMC P/259/83, ff. 7601, 7605–07, 7612–14.

139 Malcolm to Young, ? May 1818, MSS Eur. F88/383, ff. 7, 12–13.

140 Morison to Wood, 19 July 1817, IOR, MMC P/259/60, ff. 6993–95.

141 General Orders by the Commander-in-Chief, 24 December 1817, IOR, MMC P/259/74, ff. 2798–99.

142 Petition of Rambaj, n.d., IOR, BMC P/354/32, ff. 4711–13.

143 Petition of Begum Bhicco and Tatima of Bombay, n.d., IOR, BMC P/357/10, ff. 4357–59.

144 Petition of Luximon Cargawanah, 3 February 1818, IOR, BMC P/357/15, f. 567; Conway to the Chief Secretary to Government, 7 August 1818, IOR, MMC P/260/2, ff. 8331–12.

145 Dyce to Elliott, 2 September 1817, IOR, MMC P/259/73, ff. 2110–12.

146 List of Madras and Bombay Pensioners Residing in Hindustan, 1820–1847, NAI, MD, MR, no. 7.

147 Bombay Castle to Fort St George, 7 September 1838, NAI, Foreign Department (FD), Secret Proceedings (SP), nos. 48–49, ff.11–12; Bombay Castle to the Secretary to Government, 11 September 1838, NAI, FD, SP, nos. 50–51, ff. 5–6; Fort William to Fort St George, 17 October 1838, NAI, FD, SP, no. 52, f. 4.

148 The East India Company, Pindarree and Maharatta War, pp. 183–84.