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REVERSE EMULATION AND THE CULT OF JAPANESE EFFICIENCY IN EDWARDIAN BRITAIN

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 May 2016

CHIKA TONOOKA
CHIKA TONOOKA*
Affiliation:
Gonville & Caius College, Cambridge
*
Gonville & Caius College, Cambridge, cb2 1tact354@cam.ac.uk
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Abstract

This article considers a particular moment in world history when an instant of epoch-making triumph in the non-West – Japan's defeat of Russia in 1905 – coincided with a period of intense national anxiety in Britain in the wake of the South African War (1899–1902). One outcome of this historical intersection was the emergence in Britain of a euphoric ‘cult of Japan’ that saw many Edwardians, obsessed with the idea of ‘efficiency’, deploy Japan as both a referent for British shortcomings and a model for reform. The article asks why proponents of ‘efficiency’ – most of them ardent imperialists – deemed it acceptable, even strategically advantageous, in such domestic debates to draw upon examples from Japan – an ‘Oriental’ race and former protégé – in apparent contradiction of Western supremacism. The article contends that Britain's emulative attitudes were underpinned by an emergent plural conception of ‘civilization’, which appraised Japan's attainment of civilization as consistent with Western standards whilst at the same time recognizing elements of Japanese particularity – an outlook that justified reciprocal learning.

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Articles
Information
The Historical Journal , Volume 60 , Issue 1 , March 2017 , pp. 95 - 119
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Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2016 

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Footnotes

* The author would like to thank Peter Mandler, Harumi Goto-Shibata, Riho Isaka, David Motadel, Kaz Oishi, and the anonymous referees for their advice and comments on the article in its various stages of development. The research presented in this article was first started at the University of Tokyo, and forms part of the author's doctoral project on Japanese ‘civilization’ and conceptions of ‘progress’ in British thought and culture, c. 1880–1945, supported by the Cambridge Commonwealth, European & International Trust.

References

1 Members included: Leo Maxse, Leo Amery (Unionists); Richard Haldane, Edward Grey, Halford Mackinder (Liberal imperialists); H. G. Wells, Bertrand Russell (Fabians). For a detailed account of the club's activities, see Bernard Semmel, Imperialism and social reform: English social-imperial thought, 1895–1914 (London, 1960), pp. 72–82.

2 W. A. S. Hewins, The apologia of an imperialist (2 vols., London, 1929), i, p. 65.

3 Coefficients' Club minutes, ‘For what ends is a British empire desirable’, 15 June 1903, British Library of Political and Economic Science (BLPES), London School of Economics, London, ASSOC 17.

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8 Spectator, 16 Aug. 1902, p. 4.

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25 Times, 14 Oct. 1905, p. 9.

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27 Benjamin Kidd, Social evolution (London, 1894), p. 287.

28 Peter Mandler, The English national character: the history of an idea from Edmund Burke to Tony Blair (New Haven, CT, and London, 2006), p. 120.

29 Inazo Nitobe, Bushido, the soul of Japan: an exposition of Japanese thought (Tokyo, 1900). Nitobe, a Quaker, indicates in his preface that his objective is to expound an ethical system comparable to Christianity in the West, attributing the book's origin to a conversation with a Belgian jurist over the nature of Japanese morality in the absence of religious instruction in schools.

30 Holmes and Ion, ‘Bushido and the samurai’.

31 Times, 6 June 1904, p. 10.

32 Notably, Stead in Great Japan and his contributions to magazines, e.g. ‘Bushido, the Japanese ethical code’, Monthly Review (MR), 14 (1904), pp. 52–62. See also military correspondent Charles à Court Repington in The Times, 4 Oct. 1904, p. 6; and ‘Letters to the editor’ in The Times, 8 Oct. 1904, p. 8; 13 Oct. 1904, p. 6; 15 Oct. 1904, p. 4; and 20 Oct. 1904, p. 13 for (largely appreciative) reader responses. Repington later expanded on the theme in The war in the Far East, 1904–1905 (London, 1905). For Japanese efforts to promote bushido in Britain, see Hashimoto, ‘White hope or yellow peril?’, pp. 390–3.

33 Coefficients' Club minutes, ‘How far is it possible to evolve a system of national ethics for the British empire?’

34 Robert Baden-Powell, Scouting for boys: a handbook for instruction in good citizenship (London, 1908), p. 239.

35 H. G. Wells, The new Machiavelli (London, 1911), p. 337; H. G. Wells, A modern utopia (London, 1905).

36 Suzuki, Koshi, ‘Meijiki nihon ni okeru bushido no soushutsu’ [The invention of Bushido in Meiji Japan], Tsukuba Daigaku Taiiku Kagakukei Kiyou [Bulletin of Health and Sport Science, University of Tsukuba], 24 (2001), pp. 47–56 Google Scholar. Although prominent in the West as the chief Anglophone architect of bushido, Nitobe's impact on bushido discourse in Japan was limited: Yuzo Ota, Taiheiyou no hashi toshiteno Nitobe Inazo [Inazo Nitobe as a bridge across the Pacific] (Tokyo, 1986), pp. 23–5, 61.

37 Oleg Benesch, Inventing the way of the samurai: nationalism, internationalism, and bushido in modern Japan (Oxford, 2014). Benesch also notes Nitobe's limited influence on the content of bushido discourse in Japan, p. 229.

38 As with Holmes and Ion in ‘Bushido and the samurai’, Jenny Holt's recent discussion of the bushido narrative in Anglophone literature focuses on the figure of the samurai: Holt, Jenny, ‘Samurai and the gentlemen: the Anglophone Japan corpus and new avenues into Orientalism’, Literature Compass, 11 (2014), pp. 36–46 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 47–59.

39 Basil Hall Chamberlain, The invention of a new religion (London, 1912).

40 ‘Sun-struck’, Saturday Review (SR), 100 (1905), pp. 596–7Google Scholar, at p. 596.

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43 House of Commons Deb., 16 Mar. 1909, Hansard 5th series, vol. 2, col. 997.

44 ‘General report on the Japanese system of military education and training’ (1906), The National Archives (TNA), London, WO 33/407, pp. 3, 26.

45 Ibid., p. 15.

46 Ibid., pp. 10–11.

47 A. M. Murray to Leo Amery, 14 May 1906, Churchill Archives Centre, Cambridge, papers of Leopold Amery, AMEL 2/5/5. Cf. A. Hamish Ion, ‘Japan watchers: 1903–1931’, in John F. Howes, ed., Nitobe Inazo: Japan's bridge across the Pacific (Boulder, CO, 1995), pp. 79–106, at pp. 89–90, which stresses the primacy of British military interest in ‘traditional Japanese values’ in the immediate aftermath of the war and regards sceptical discussions of Nitobe's conception of bushido in 1910 (in Bannerman, Alexander, ‘The creation of the Japanese national spirit’, Journal of the Royal United Services Institute, 54 (1910), pp. 697–719 CrossRefGoogle Scholar) as evidence of considerable change of contemporary opinion.

48 Holdich, Thomas, ‘England's strength in Asia’, Fortnightly Review (FR), 78 (1905), pp. 640–55Google Scholar, at p. 652.

49 House of Lords Deb., 20 Feb. 1905, Hansard 4th series, vol. 141, col. 549.

50 Nitobe, Bushido, pp. v, 126.

51 Mandler, English national character, p. 130.

52 Ibid., pp. 130–1; J. H. Grainger, Patriotisms: Britain, 1900–1939 (London, 1986), pp. 27–47.

53 Shee, George F., ‘The organisation of the national resources’, MR, 17 (1904), pp. 22–32 Google Scholar, at pp. 27–8.

54 Dyer, Henry, ‘Education and national efficiency in Japan’, Nature, 71 (1904), pp. 150–1CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at p. 151.

55 Ibid.

56 Times, 6 Sept. 1905, p. 7.

57 Ibid.; ‘I am beginning to understand the secret of these people being so successful in war: they work on exactly opposite ideas to us. We do all we can to exalt individuality, whereas they…require absolute self effacement as a condition of leadership’, Murray to Amery, 14 May 1906, AMEL 2/5/5.

58 Garvin, J. L., ‘Imperial and foreign affairs: a review of events’, FR, 87 (1910), pp. 16–33 Google Scholar, at p. 32.

59 Times, 16 Nov. 1905, p. 7.

60 Hamilton, Staff officer's scrap-book, ii, p. 33.

61 ‘The curse of party?’, The Speaker: The Liberal Review, 13 (1905), p. 26 Google Scholar; ‘Persons and politics’, The Speaker: The Liberal Review, 12 (1905), p. 619 Google Scholar.

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64 Times, 5 June 1905, p. 9.

65 Christine Bolt, Victorian attitudes to race (London, 1971), pp. 1–28; J. W. Burrow, Evolution and society: a study in Victorian social theory (Cambridge, 1966); Catherine Hall, Civilising subjects: metropole and colony in the English imagination, 1830–1867 (Cambridge, 2002); Peter Mandler, ‘“Race” and “nation” in mid-Victorian thought’, in Stefan Collini, Richard Whatmore, and Brian Young, eds., History, religion, and culture: British intellectual history, 1750–1950 (Cambridge, 2000), pp. 224–44; Mandler, English national character, pp. 72–86; Douglas Lorimer, ‘From Victorian values to white virtues: assimilation and exclusion in British racial discourse, c. 1870–1914’, in Philip Buckner and R. Douglas Francis, eds., Rediscovering the British world (Calgary, AB, 2005), pp. 109–34; Douglas Lorimer, ‘From natural science to social science: race and the language of race relations in late Victorian and Edwardian discourse’, in Duncan Kelly, ed., Lineages of empire: the historical roots of British imperial thought (Oxford, 2009), pp. 181–212; Douglas A. Lorimer, ‘Race, science and culture: historical continuities and discontinuities, 1850–1914’, in Shearer West, ed., The Victorians and race (Aldershot, 1996), pp. 12–33; Douglas A. Lorimer, ‘Science and the secularization of Victorian images of race’, in Bernard Lightman, ed., Victorian science in context (Chicago, IL, and London, 1997), pp. 212–35. For an alternative formulation of the ‘civilisational perspective’ that identifies technology as the primary marker of civilization, see Michael Adas, Machines as the measure of men: science, technology, and ideologies of Western dominance (Ithaca, NY, and London, 1989).

66 Lorimer, ‘Natural science to social science’, pp. 181–212; Lorimer, ‘Race, science and culture’, pp. 12–33; Lorimer, ‘Victorian values’, pp. 109–34. On race and immigration, see Marilyn Lake and Henry Reynolds, Drawing the global colour line: white men's countries and the international challenge of racial equality (Cambridge, 2008).

67 Lorimer, ‘Natural science to social science’, pp. 186–8.

68 Lorimer, ‘Science and secularization’, pp. 228–9; Lorimer, ‘Race, science and culture’, p. 25.

69 Lorimer, ‘Science and secularization’, p. 228; Lorimer, ‘Natural science to social science’, p. 192.

70 Lorimer, ‘Victorian values’, p. 117.

71 Bill Schwarz, The white man's world (Oxford, 2013), p. 229.

72 Times, 6 Sept. 1905, p. 7.

73 ‘The books of the month: are there any superior races?’, RR, 31 (1905), pp. 538–42Google Scholar, at p. 538.

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81 Benjamin Kidd, The science of power (London, 1918), pp. 111–12. See Kidd, Social evolution, pp. 243–334, for his original assertions.

82 Benjamin Kidd, Principles of Western civilisation: a sociological study (London, 1908), p. xx.

83 Times, 6 Sept. 1905, p. 7. September 1905 also saw the outbreak of the Hibiya Riot in Tokyo in protest of the terms of the peace treaty with Russia. However, unwavering in their appraisal of the Japanese character, The Times described the disturbances as ‘superficial and transitory’ amongst a race ‘not accustomed to suffer their feelings to dominate their reason and their sense of duty’, Times, 7 Sept. 1905, p. 7; see also Times, 9 Sept. 1905, p. 5.

84 H. G. Wells wrote in A modern utopia (1905), ‘Mr. Kidd did not anticipate Japan’, p. 346.

85 Times, 7 Oct. 1905, p. 9.

86 Macdonell, John, ‘The future Hague Conference’, CR, 88 (1905), pp. 848–56Google Scholar, at p. 856.

87 Beatrice Webb, Our partnership, ed. Barbara Drake and M. I. Cole (London, 1948), entry for 22 Dec. 1904, p. 299. For a more detailed account of the Webbs' positive assessment of the Japanese including their later first-hand observations during their 1911 visit, see Winter, J. M., ‘The Webbs and the non-white world: a case of socialist racialism’, Journal of Contemporary History, 9 (1974), pp. 181–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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92 Ibid.

93 Ibid., pp. 325–6. On the activities of the Japanese Red Cross, see Naoko Shimazu, Japanese society at war: death, memory and the Russo-Japanese War (Cambridge, 2009).

94 Times, 12 Feb. 1906, p. 9.

95 ‘Is the moral supremacy of Christendom in danger?’, pp. 30, 39.

96 Times, 17 Oct. 1905, p. 9.

97 Colquhoun, Archibald R., ‘The secret of Japanese patriotism’, MR, 26 (1907), pp. 70–82 Google Scholar, at pp. 80–1. The significance of the ‘newly invented’ Japanese religion of Shinto to state propagation of national morality was noted more explicitly and critically later by Basil Hall Chamberlain in The invention of a new religion (1912). For a secondary discussion of this point, see Helen Hardacre, Shinto and the state, 1868–1988 (Princeton, NJ, 1989).

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99 G. K. Chesterton, Heretics (London, 1905), p. 300.

100 Times, 5 June 1905, p. 9.

101 Joseph M. Henning, Outposts of civilization: race, religion, and the formative years of American–Japanese relations (New York, NY, 2000), pp. 137–64.

102 Times, 6 Sept. 1905, p. 7.

103 Coefficients' Club minutes, ‘What part are the coloured races destined to play in the future development of civilization’.

104 Ibid.

105 Ibid.

106 Ibid.

107 Eltzbacher, O., ‘The yellow peril’, NC, 55 (1904), pp. 910–25Google Scholar; Times, 7 Sept. 1904, p. 7; Times, 28 Sept. 1904, p. 7.

108 Another common argument against ‘yellow peril’ was to view Japan as the true upholder of civilization and to identify Russia instead as the ‘real peril’; see for example Times, 25 Nov. 1903, p. 9; Times, 25 May 1904, p. 7; Boulger, D., ‘The “yellow peril” bogey’, NC, 55 (1904), pp. 30–9Google Scholar; Eltzbacher, ‘Yellow peril’.

109 Times, 6 Sept. 1905, p. 7.

110 Spectator, 14 May 1904, p. 4.

111 For an overview of the impact of the Russo-Japanese War on the rise of nationalism in the non-West, see Cemil Aydin, ‘A global anti-Western movement? The Russo-Japanese War, decolonization and Asian modernity’, in Sebastian Conrad and Dominic Sachsenmaier, eds., Competing visions of world order: global moments and movements, 1880s–1930s (New York, NY, 2007), pp. 213–36.

112 House of Commons Deb., 21 June 1905, Hansard 4th series, vol. 147, col. 1288; House of Commons Deb., 20 July 1906, Hansard 4th series, vol. 161, col. 600; House of Commons Deb., 26 Feb. 1906, Hansard 4th series, vol. 152, cols. 837–8; House of Commons Deb., 5 Nov. 1906, Hansard 4th series, vol. 164, col. 88; House of Commons Deb., 1 Apr. 1909, Hansard 5th series, vol. 3, col. 579; Spectator, 18 Aug. 1906, p. 6; Spectator, 22 Sept. 1906, p. 5; Spectator, 16 May 1908, p. 5; Times, 24 Apr. 1906, p. 9; Times, 19 May 1906, p. 13; Giles, Lionel, ‘The awakening of China: a street placard from Hunan’, NC, 60 (1906), pp. 521–32Google Scholar; Lawton, Lancelot, ‘Imperial and foreign affairs: China – the stirrings of the waters’, Academy and Literature, 81 (1911), pp. 549–50Google Scholar; Houghton, Bernard, ‘The renaissance in Asia’, Westminster Review, 177 (1912), pp. 1–9 Google Scholar.

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114 Viator, ‘ Asia contra mundum ’, FR, 83 (1908), pp. 185–200 Google Scholar. For Pearson's original thesis, see Charles Henry Pearson, National life and character: a forecast (London, 1893).

115 Dillon, E. J., ‘Foreign affairs’, CR, 86 (1904), pp. 281–98Google Scholar, at pp. 286–90.

116 Dillon, E. J., ‘Foreign affairs’, CR, 93 (1908), pp. 236–56Google Scholar, at p. 246.

117 Ibid., p. 243.

118 Spectator, 23 May 1908, p. 9.

119 Times, 19 Aug. 1909, p. 9.

120 Ibid.

121 Spectator, 28 Dec. 1907, p. 4; Dillon, ‘Foreign affairs’, CR, 93 (1908), pp. 244–5Google Scholar.

122 Lawton, Lancelot, ‘Imperial and foreign affairs’, Academy and Literature, 81 (1911), pp. 27–9Google Scholar, at p. 28.

123 Times, 28 Oct. 1907, p. 9.

124 Spectator, 13 July 1907, p. 4.

125 Viator, ‘Asia contra mundum’, p. 195. Valentine Chirol (formerly at The Times) similarly recognized this tension between ‘race’ and ‘civilization’ in discussing Japanese immigration to the United States; see ‘Japan among the nations’, Living Age, 277 (1913), p. 818 Google Scholar.

126 On the Racial Equality Proposal (1919), see Naoko Shimazu, Japan, race and equality: the racial equality proposal of 1919 (London, 1998).

127 Times, 15 Jan. 1907, p. 9.