Hostname: page-component-6b989bf9dc-llglr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-15T03:21:54.532Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Multigenerational links between mothers' experiences of autonomy in childhood and preschoolers' respiratory sinus arrhythmia: Variations by maltreatment status

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 November 2015

Laura K. Noll ,
Caron A. C. Clark  and
Elizabeth A. Skowron
Laura K. Noll
Affiliation:
University of Oregon
Caron A. C. Clark
Affiliation:
University of Oregon
Elizabeth A. Skowron*
Affiliation:
University of Oregon
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Elizabeth Skowron, Department of Counseling Psychology & Human Services, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403. E-mail: eskowron@uoregon.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Despite burgeoning evidence linking early exposure to child maltreatment (CM) to deficits in self-regulation, the pathways to strong regulatory development in these children are not well understood, and significant heterogeneity is observed in their outcomes. Experiences of autonomy may play a key role in transmitting self-regulatory capacity across generations and help explain individual differences in maltreatment outcomes. In this study, we investigated multigenerational associations between Generation 1 (G1)–Generation 2 (G2) mothers' early experience of warmth and autonomy in relation to their own mothers and their Generation 3 (G3) children's autonomic physiological regulation in CM (n = 85) and non-CM (n = 128) families. We found that G2 mothers who recalled greater autonomy in their childhood relationship with their G1 mothers had preschool-age G3 children with higher respiratory sinus arrhythmia at baseline when alone while engaged in individual challenge tasks, during social exchanges with their mother in joint challenge tasks, and during the portions of the strange situation procedure when the mother was present. Although no clear mediators of this association emerged, multigenerational links among G1–G2 relations, maternal representations of her child, child behavior, and child respiratory sinus arrhythmia differed by maltreatment status, thus possibly representing important targets for future research and intervention.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 27 , Special Issue 4pt2: Multilevel Developmental Perspectives on Child Maltreatment , November 2015 , pp. 1443 - 1460
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1989). Attachments beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44, 709–716. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.44.4.709 Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Bowlby, J. (1991). An ethological approach to personality development. American Psychologist, 46, 331–341. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.46.4.333 Google Scholar
Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Bremner, J. D., Walker, J. D., Whitfield, C. H., Perry, B. D., et al. (2006). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256, 174–186. doi:10.1007/s00406-005-0624-4 Google Scholar
Barnett, D., Manly, J. T., & Cicchetti, D. (1993). Defining child maltreatment: The interface between policy and research. Child Abuse, Child Development, and Social Policy, 8, 7–73.Google Scholar
Beauchaine, T. (2001). Vagal tone, development, and Gray's motivational theory: Toward an integrated model of autonomic nervous system functioning in psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 183–214. doi:10.1017/S0954579401002012 Google Scholar
Beck, A. T. (1983). Cognitive therapy of depression: New perspectives. In Clayton, P. J. & Barrett, J. E. (Eds.), Treatment of depression: Old controversies and new approaches (pp. 265–290). New York: Raven.Google Scholar
Beck, A. T. (1999). Cognitive aspects of personality disorders and their relation to syndromal disorders: A psychoevolutionary approach. In Cloninger, C. R. (Ed.), Personality and psychopathology (pp. 411–429). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar
Belsky, J. (1993). Etiology of child maltreatment: A developmental ecological analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 413–434. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.114.3.413 Google Scholar
Belsky, J., Conger, R., & Capaldi, D. M. (2009). The intergenerational transmission of parenting: Introduction to the Special Section. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1201–1204. doi:10.1037/a0016245 Google Scholar
Benjamin, L. S. (1974). Structural analysis of social behavior. Psychological Review, 81, 392–425. doi:10.1037/h0037024 Google Scholar
Benjamin, L. S. (1996). Interpersonal diagnosis and treatment of personality disorders (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Benjamin, L. S. (2000). Intrex user manual. Salt Lake City, UT: University of Utah.Google Scholar
Benjamin, L. S. (2011). Structural analysis of social behavior (SASB): Studying the nature of nature. In Horowitz, L. M. & Strack, S. (Eds.), Handbook of interpersonal psychology (pp. 325–342). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Benjamin, L. S., & Cushing, G. (2000). Manual for coding social interactions in terms of structural analysis of social behavior [CD]. Salt Lake City, UT: University of Utah.Google Scholar
Benjamin, L. S., & Friedrich, F. J. (1991). Contributions of structural analysis of social behavior (SASB) to the bridge between cognitive science and a science of object relations. In Horowitz, M. (Ed.), Person schemas and maladaptive interpersonal patterns (pp. 379–412). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Bernier, A., Carlson, S. M., & Whipple, N. (2010). From external regulation to self-regulation: Early parenting precursors of young children's executive functioning. Child Development, 81, 326–339. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01397.x Google Scholar
Berntson, G. G., Bigger, J. T., Eckberg, D. L., Grossman, P., Kaufmann, P. G., Malik, M., et al. (1997). Heart rate variability: Origins, methods, and interpretive caveats. Psychophysiology, 34, 623–648. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1997.tb02140.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bindman, S. W., Pomerantz, E. M., & Roisman, G. I. (2015). Do children's executive functions account for associations between early autonomy-supportive parenting and achievement through high school? Journal of Educational Psychology. Advance online publication.Google Scholar
Blatt, S. J. (1974). Levels of object representation in anaclitic and introjective depression. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 29, 107–157.Google Scholar
Blatt, S. J. (2008). Polarities of experience: Relatedness and self-definition in personality development, psychopathology, and the therapeutic process. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., & Suess, P. E. (2000). Child and mother cardiac vagal tone: Continuity, stability, and concordance across the first 5 years. Developmental Psychology, 36, 54–65. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.36.1.54 Google Scholar
Bowen, M. (1978). Family therapy in clinical practice. New York: Aronson.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. New York: Basic Books. (Original work published 1969)Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent–child attachment and healthy human development. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Bruce, J., Fisher, P. A., Pears, K. C., & Levine, S. (2009). Morning cortisol levels in preschool-aged foster children: Differential effects of maltreatment type. Developmental Psychobiology, 51, 14–23. doi:10.1002/dev.20333 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bugental, D. (2009). Predicting and preventing child maltreatment: A biocognitive transactional approach. In Sameroff, A. (Ed.), The transactional model of child development: How children and contexts shape each other (pp. 97–115). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Butler, E. A., Wilhelm, F. H., & Gross, J. J. (2006). Respiratory sinus arrhythmia, emotion, and emotion regulation during social interaction. Psychophysiology, 43, 612–622. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2006.00467.x Google Scholar
Calkins, S. D., Graziano, P. A., Berdan, L. E., Keane, S. P., & Degan, K. A. (2008). Predicting cardiac vagal tone in early childhood from maternal-child relationship quality during toddlerhood. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 751–766.Google Scholar
Carmichael-Olson, H., Greenberg, M., & Slough, N. (1985). Manual for the waiting task. Unpublished manuscript, University of Washington.Google Scholar
Cassidy, J., & Marvin, R. S. (1992). Attachment organization in preschool children: Coding guidelines (4th ed.). Unpublished manuscript, MacArthur Working Group on Attachment, Seattle, WA.Google Scholar
Chaffin, M., Silovsky, J. F., Funderburk, B., Valle, L. A., Brestan, E. V., Balachova, T., et al. (2004). Parent–child interaction therapy with physically abusive parents: Efficacy for reducing future abuse reports. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 500–510. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.72.3.500 Google Scholar
Champagne, F. A. (2008). Epigenetic mechanisms and the transgenerational effects of maternal care. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 29, 386–397.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2001). The impact of child maltreatment and psychopathology on neuroendocrine functioning. Developmental Psychopathology, 13, 783–804.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2005). Child maltreatment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 409–438. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144029 Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Tucker, D. (1994). Development and self-regulatory structures of the mind. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 533–549. doi:10.1017/S0954579400004673 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Valentino, K. (2006). An ecological transactional perspective on child maltreatment: Failure of the average expectable environment and its influence upon child development. Developmental Psychopathology, 3, 129–201.Google Scholar
Coll, C. G. (2008). Mothers’ and fathers’ support for child autonomy and early school achievement. Developmental Psychology, 44, 895–907.Google Scholar
Conger, R. D., Belsky, J., & Capaldi, D. M. (2009). The intergenerational transmission of parenting: Closing comments for the special section. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1276–1283. doi:10.1037/a0016911 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conger, R. D., Neppl, T., Kim, K. J., & Scaramella, L. (2003). Angry and aggressive behavior across three generations: A prospective, longitudinal study of parents and children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 143–160. doi:10.1023/A:1022570107457 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Bellis, M. D. (2001). Developmental traumatology: The psychobiological development of maltreated children and its implications for research, treatment, and policy. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 539–564. doi:10.1017/S0954579401003078 Google Scholar
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Delker, B. C., Noll, L. K., Kim, H. K., & Fisher, P. A. (2014). Maternal abuse history and self-regulation difficulties in preadolescence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38, 2033–2043. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.10.014 Google Scholar
Dozier, M., Peloso, E., Lewis, E., Laurenceau, J. P., & Levine, S. (2008). Effects of an attachment-based intervention on the cortisol production of infants and toddlers in foster care. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 845–859. doi:10.1017/S0954579408000400 Google Scholar
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., et al. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 14, 245–258. doi:10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8 Google Scholar
Fisher, P. A., Van Ryzin, M. J., & Gunnar, M. R. (2011). Mitigating HPA axis dysregulation associated with placement changes in foster care. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 36, 531–539. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.08.007 Google Scholar
Fleming, A. S., Kraemer, G. W., Gonzalez, A., Lovic, V., Rees, S., & Melo, A. (2002). Mothering begets mothering: The transmission of behavior and its neurobiology across generations. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 73, 61–75. doi:10.1016/S0091-3057(02)00793-1 Google Scholar
Francis, D. D., & Meaney, M. J. (1999). Maternal care and the development of stress responses. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 9, 128–134. doi:10.1016/S0959-4388(99)80016-6 Google Scholar
Fuendeling, J. M. (1998). Affect regulation as a stylistic process within adult attachment. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15, 291–322. doi:10.1177/0265407598153001 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geisler, F. C., Kubiak, T., Siewert, K., & Weber, H. (2013). Cardiac vagal tone is associated with social engagement and self-regulation. Biological Psychology, 93, 279–286. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.02.013 Google Scholar
Gerstadt, C. L., Hong, Y. J., & Diamond, A. (1994). The relationship between cognition and action: Performance of children 3.5–7 years old on a Stroop-like day–night test. Cognition, 53, 129–152. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(94)90068-X Google Scholar
Goldsmith, H. H., Reilly, J., Lemery, K. S., Longley, S., & Prescott, A. (1999). The Laboratory Assessment Battery: Preschool version (LAB-TAB). Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, Madison.Google Scholar
Graziano, P., & Derefinko, K. (2013). Cardiac vagal control and children's adaptive functioning: A meta-analysis. Biological Psychology, 94, 22–37. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.04.011 Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., & Quevedo, K. M. (2007). Early care experiences and HPA axis regulation in children: A mechanism for later trauma vulnerability. Progress in Brain Research, 167, 137–149.Google Scholar
Gurtman, M. B. (2001). Interpersonal complementarity: Integrating interpersonal measurement with interpersonal models. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 48, 97–110. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.48.1.97 Google Scholar
Hakman, M., Chaffin, M., Funderburk, B., & Silovsky, J. F. (2009). Change trajectories for parent-child interaction sequences during parent-child interaction therapy for child physical abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33, 461–470. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.08.003 Google Scholar
Hane, A. A., & Fox, N. A. (2006). Ordinary variations in maternal caregiving of human infants influence stress reactivity. Psychological Science, 17, 550–556. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01742.x Google Scholar
Hinnant, J. B., & El-Sheikh, M. (2009). Children's externalizing and internalizing symptoms over time: The role of individual differences in patterns of RSA responding. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 1049–1061. doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9341-1 Google Scholar
Hoffman, C., Crnic, K. A., & Baker, J. K. (2006). Maternal depression and parenting: Implications for children's emergent emotion regulation and behavioral functioning. Parenting: Science and Practice, 6, 271–295. doi:10.1207/s15327922par0604_1 Google Scholar
Holochwost, S. J., Gariépy, J. L., Propper, C. B., Mills-Koonce, W. R., & Moore, G. A. (2014). Parenting behaviors and vagal tone at six months predict attachment disorganization at twelve months. Developmental Psychobiology, 56, 1423–1430. doi:10.1002/dev.21221 Google Scholar
Jacobvitz, D. B., Morgan, E., Kretchmar, M. D., & Morgan, Y. (1991). The transmission of mother–child boundary disturbances across three generations. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 513–527. doi:10.1017/S0954579400007665 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joussemet, M., Koestner, R., Lekes, N., & Landry, R. (2005). A longitudinal study of maternal autonomy support and children's adjustment and achievement in school. Journal of Personality, 73, 1215–1235. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00347.x Google Scholar
Kaplow, J. B., & Widom, C. S. (2007). Age of onset of child maltreatment predicts long-term mental health outcomes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 176. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.116.1.176 Google Scholar
Kaufman, J., & Ziegler, E. (1989). The intergenerational transmission of child abuse. In Cicchetti, D. & Carlson, V. (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 129–150). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kerr, M. E., & Bowen, M. (1988). Family evaluation. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Murray, K., & Coy, K. C. (1997). Inhibitory control as a contributor to conscience in childhood: From toddler to early school age. Child Development, 68, 264–277. doi:10.2307/1131849 Google Scholar
Kretchmar, M. D., & Jacobvitz, D. B. (2002). Observing mother–child relations across generations: Boundary patterns, attachment, and the transmission of caregiving. Family Process, 41, 351–374. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.2002.41306.x Google Scholar
Laurent, H. K., Gilliam, K. S., Bruce, J., & Fisher, P. A. (2014). HPA stability for children in foster care: Mental health implications and moderation by early intervention. Developmental Psychobiology, 56, 1406–1415. doi:10.1002/dev.21226 Google Scholar
Liu, D., Diorio, J., Tannenbaum, B., Caldji, C., Francis, D., Freedman, A., et al. (1997). Maternal care, hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors, and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses to stress. Science, 277, 1659–1662. doi:10.1126/science.277.5332.1659 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lopez, F. G., & Brennan, K. A. (2000). Dynamic processes underlying adult attachment organization: Toward an attachment theoretical perspective on the healthy and effective self. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47, 283–300. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.47.3.283 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lorber, M. F., & O'Leary, S. G. (2005). Mediated paths to overreactive discipline: Mothers’ experienced emotion, appraisals, and physiological responses. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 972–981. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.73.5.972 Google Scholar
Luby, J. L., Barch, D. M., Belden, A., Graffrey, M. S., Tillman, R., Babb, C., et al. (2012). Maternal support in early childhood predicts larger hippocampal volumes at school age. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, 2854–2859. doi:10.1073/pnas.1118003109 Google Scholar
Luyten, P., & Blatt, S. J. (2011). Integrating theory-driven and empirically-derived models of personality development and psychopathology: A proposal for the DSM-V. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 52–68. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.09.003 Google Scholar
Maughan, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2002). Impact of child maltreatment and interadult violence on children's emotion regulation abilities and socioemotional adjustment. Child Development, 73, 1525–1542. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00488 Google Scholar
McCanne, T. R., & Hagstrom, A. H. (1996). Physiological hyperreactivity to stressors in physical child abusers and individuals at risk for being physically abusive. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 1, 345–358. doi:10.1016/S1359-1789(96)00004-3 Google Scholar
Meaney, M. J. (2001). Maternal care, gene expression, and the transmission of individual differences in stress reactivity across generations. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24, 1161–1192. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.1161 Google Scholar
Mezzacappa, E., Kindlon, D., Saul, J. P., & Earls, F. (1998). Executive and motivational control of performance task behavior, and autonomic heart-rate regulation in children: Physiologic validation of two-factor solution inhibitory control. Journal of Child Psychiatry, 39, 525–531. doi:10.1017/S0021963098002273 Google Scholar
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Moilanen, K. L., Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., Gardner, F., & Wilson, M. (2010). Predictors of longitudinal growth in inhibitory control in early childhood. Social Development, 19, 326–347. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2009.00536.x Google Scholar
Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2012). Mplus user's guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Nelson, C. A., Zeanah, C. H., Fox, N. A., Marshall, P. J., Smyke, A. T., & Guthrie, D. (2007). Cognitive recovery in socially deprived young children: The Bucharest Early Intervention Project. Science, 318, 1937–1940. doi:10.1126/science.1143921 Google Scholar
Noone, R., & Papero, D. (Eds.). (in press). The family emotional system: An integrative concept for theory, science, and practice. New York: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Obradović, J., Bush, N. R., Stamperdahl, J., Adler, N. E., & Boyce, W. T. (2010). Biological sensitivity to context: The interactive effects of stress reactivity and family adversity on socioemotional behavior and school readiness. Child Development, 81, 270–289. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01394.x Google Scholar
Pears, K. C., & Fisher, P. A. (2005). Developmental, cognitive, and neuropsychological functioning in preschool-aged foster children: Associations with prior maltreatment and placement history. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 26, 112–122. doi:10.1097/00004703-200504000-00006 Google Scholar
Pears, K. C., Fisher, P. A., Bruce, J., Kim, H. K., & Yoerger, K. (2010). Early elementary school adjustment of maltreated children in foster care: The roles of inhibitory control and caregiver involvement. Child Development, 81, 1550–1564. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01491.x Google Scholar
Perlman, S. B., Camras, L. A., & Pelphrey, K. A. (2008). Physiology and functioning: Parents’ vagal tone, emotion socialization, and children's emotion knowledge. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 100, 308–315. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2008.03.007 Google Scholar
Perry, N. B., Mackler, J. S., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2014). A transactional analysis of the relation between maternal sensitivity and child vagal regulation. Developmental Psychology, 50, 784–793. doi:10.1037/a0033819 Google Scholar
Pincus, A. L. (2005). A contemporary integrative interpersonal theory of personality disorders. In Lenzenweger, M. F. & Clarkin, J. F. (Eds.), Major theories of personality disorder (2nd ed., pp. 282–331). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Pincus, A. L., Gurtman, M. B., & Ruiz, M. A. (1998). Structural Analysis of Social Behavior (SASB): Circumplex analyses and structural relations with the interpersonal circle and the five-factor model of personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1629–1645. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1629 Google Scholar
Pollak, S. D., & Kistler, D. J. (2002). Early experience is associated with the development of categorical representations for facial expressions of emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99, 9072–9076.Google Scholar
Pollak, S. D., & Sinha, P. (2002). Effects of early experience on children's recognition of facial displays of emotion. Developmental Psychology, 38, 784–791. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.38.5.784 Google Scholar
Pollak, S. D., & Tolley-Schell, S. A. (2003). Selective attention to facial emotion in physically abused children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 323–338. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.112.3.323 Google Scholar
Pollak, S. D., Vardi, S., Putzer, A. M., & Curtin, J. J. (2005). Physically abused children's regulation of attention in response to hostility. Child Development, 76, 968–977. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00890.x Google Scholar
Porges, S. W. (1995). Orienting in a defensive world: Mammalian modifications of our evolutionary heritage: A polyvagal theory. Psychophysiology, 32, 301–318. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1995.tb01213.x Google Scholar
Porges, S. W. (1998). Love: An emergent property of the mammalian autonomic nervous system. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 23, 837–861. doi:10.1016/S0306-4530(98)00057-2 Google Scholar
Porges, S. W. (2001). The polyvagal theory: Phylogenetic substrates of a social nervous system. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 42, 123–146. doi:10.1016/S0167-8760(01)00162-3 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porges, S. W. (2003). The polyvagal theory: Phylogenetic contributions to social behavior. Physiology & Behavior, 79, 503–513. doi:10.1016/S0031-9384(03)00156-2 Google Scholar
Porges, S. W. (2007). The polyvagal perspective. Biological Psychology, 74, 116–143. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.06.009 Google Scholar
Porges, S. W. (2011). The polyvagal theory: Neurophysiological foundations of emotions, attachment, communication, and self-regulation. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Provençal, N., Suderman, M. J., Guillemin, C., Massart, R., Ruggiero, A., Wang, D., et al. (2012). The signature of maternal rearing in the methylome in rhesus macaque prefrontal cortex and T cells. Journal of Neuroscience, 32, 15626–15642. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1470-12.2012 Google Scholar
Rogosch, F. A., Cicchetti, D., & Aber, J. L. (1995). The role of child maltreatment in early deviations in cognitive and affective processing abilities and later peer relationship problems. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 591–609. doi:10.1017/S0954579400006738 Google Scholar
Rosenblum, K. L., McDonough, S., Muzik, M., Miller, A., & Sameroff, A. (2002). Maternal representations of the infant: Associations with infant response to the still face. Child Development, 73, 999–1015. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00453 Google Scholar
Serbin, L. A., & Stack, D. M. (1998). Introduction to the Special Section: Studying intergenerational continuity and the transfer of risk. Developmental Psychology, 34, 1159–1161. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.34.6.1159 Google Scholar
Shackman, J. E., Shackman, A. J., & Pollak, S. D. (2007). Physical abuse amplifies attention to threat and increases anxiety in children. Emotion, 7, 838–852. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.7.4.838 Google Scholar
Shields, A., & Cicchetti, D. (1998). Reactive aggression among maltreated children: The contributions of attention and emotion dysregulation. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 381–395. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2704_2 Google Scholar
Shields, A., Cicchetti, D., & Ryan, R. M. (1994). The development of emotional and behavioral self-regulation and social competence among maltreated school-age children. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 57–75.Google Scholar
Shields, A., Ryan, R. M., & Cicchetti, D. (2001). Narrative representations of caregivers and emotion dysregulation as predictors of maltreated children's rejection by peers. Developmental Psychology, 37, 321–337. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.3.321 Google Scholar
Shonkoff, J. P., & Fisher, P. A. (2013). Rethinking evidence-based practice and two-generation programs to create the future of early childhood policy. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 1635–1653. doi:10.1017/S0954579413000813 Google Scholar
Skowron, E. A. (2005). Parent differentiation of self and child competence in low-income, urban families. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 337–342. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.52.3.337 Google Scholar
Skowron, E. A., Cipriano-Essel, E., Benjamin, L. S., Pincus, A. L., & Van Ryzin, M. J. (2013). Cardiac vagal tone and quality of parenting show concurrent and time-ordered associations that diverge in abusive, neglectful, and non-maltreating mothers. Couple and Family Psychology: Research and Practice, 2, 95–115. doi:10.1037/cfp0000005 Google Scholar
Skowron, E. A., Loken, E., Gatzke-Kopp, L. M., Cipriano-Essel, E. A., Woehrle, P. L., Van Epps, J. J., et al. (2011). Mapping cardiac physiology and parenting processes in maltreating mother-child dyads. Journal of Family Psychology, 25, 663–674. doi:10.1037/a0024528 Google Scholar
Skowron, E. A., & Platt, L. F. (2005). Differentiation of self and child abuse potential in young adult college students. Family Journal, 13, 281–290. doi:10.1177/1066480705276314 Google Scholar
Skowron, E. A., & Reinemann, D. H. S. (2005). Psychological interventions for child maltreatment: A meta-analysis. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 42, 52–71. doi:10.1037/0033-3204.42.1.52 Google Scholar
Solís, C. B., Kelly-Irving, M., Fantin, R., Darnaudéry, M., Torrisani, J., Lang, T., et al. (2015). Adverse childhood experiences and physiological wear-and-tear in midlife: Findings from the 1958 British birth cohort. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112, E738–E746. doi:10.1073/pnas.1417325112 Google Scholar
Sullivan, H. S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Tarullo, A. R., & Gunnar, M. R. (2006). Child maltreatment and the developing HPA axis. Hormones and Behavior, 50, 632–639. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.06.010 Google Scholar
Teicher, M. H., Dumont, N. L., Ito, Y., Vaituzis, C., Giedd, J. N., & Andersen, S. L. (2004). Childhood neglect is associated with reduced corpus callosum area. Biological Psychiatry, 56, 80–85. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.03.016 Google Scholar
Toth, S. L., Cicchetti, D., Macfie, J., & Emde, R. N. (1997). Representations of self and other in the narratives of neglected, physically abused, and sexually abused preschoolers. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 781–796. doi:10.1017/S0954579497001430 Google Scholar
Toth, S. L., Cicchetti, D., MacFie, J., Maughan, A., & Vanmeenen, K. (2000). Narrative representations of caregivers and self in maltreated preschoolers. Attachment & Human Development, 2, 271–305. doi:10.1080/14616730010000849 Google Scholar
Toth, S. L., Cicchetti, D., Macfie, J., Rogosch, F. A., & Maughan, A. (2000). Narrative representations of moral-affiliative and conflictual themes and behavioral problems in maltreated preschoolers. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 307–318. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP2903_2 Google Scholar
Tottenham, N., Hare, T. A., Quinn, B. T., McCarry, T. W., Nurse, M., Gilhooly, T., et al. (2010). Prolonged institutional rearing is associated with atypically larger amygdala volume and difficulties in emotion regulation. Developmental Science, 13, 46–61. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00852.x Google Scholar
Trickett, P. K., & McBride-Chang, C. (1995). The developmental impact of different forms of child abuse and neglect. Developmental Review, 15, 311–337. doi:10.1006/drev.1995.1012 Google Scholar
US Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children's Bureau. (2012). Child maltreatment 2012. Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
van IJzendoorn, M. (1995). Adult attachment representations, parental responsiveness, and infant attachment: A meta-analysis on the predictive validity of the Adult Attachment Interview. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 387–403. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.387 Google Scholar
Weaver, I. C., Cervoni, N., Champagne, F. A., D'Alessio, A. C., Sharma, S., Seckl, J. R., et al. (2004). Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior. Nature Neuroscience, 7, 847–854. doi:10.1038/nn1276 Google Scholar
Wilson, S. R., Rack, J. J., Shi, X., & Norris, A. M. (2008). Comparing physically abusive, neglectful, and non-maltreating parents during interactions with their children: A meta-analysis of observational studies. Child Abuse and Neglect, 32, 897–911. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.01.003 Google Scholar
Winsler, A., Diaz, R. M., McCarthy, E. M., Atencio, D. J., & Chabay, L. A. (1999). Mother-child interaction, private speech, and task performance in preschool children with behavior problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 891–904. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00507 Google Scholar