After synthesis in the vegetative parts of the plant, assimilates are translocated to fruits through xylem and phloem. Research on factors controlling nutrient transport into developing seeds via the phloem has been stimulated by the development of the empty seed coat technique.

There is a consensus that as assimilates are transported from maternal tissues to filial tissues they are delivered to the extracellular space (the apoplast) separating the two generations, prior to uptake from the apoplast into the tissues of the embryo or endosperm. The empty seed coat technique has been used for the study of several aspects of nutrient transport into seeds, e.g. metabolic control and turgorsensitive transport. The osmotic environment of seed tissues has a strong effect on assimilate transport into empty seeds. Several lines of evidence suggest that one of the main ‘secrets’ of the high sink strength of developing seeds, at least in many taxonomic groups of dicotyledons, is that the sink end of the phloem pathway is ‘bathed’ in an apoplast solution with a high concentration of osmotically active solutes. Data on maize do not fit this pattern. A turgor homeostat mechanism may help to maintain high solute concentrations in the seed apoplast. The apoplast environment of seed tissues may also stimulate synthesis of storage proteins and be involved in the prevention of precocious germination. In addition to the osmotic environment, other factors influencing sink strength are discussed. Some aspects of solute transformation during transport through seed tissues are described.

Wheat seeds were imbibed in solutions of polyethylene glycol (PEG) and NaCl, and embryo water content and incorporation of [35S]methionine into proteins were determined. Both osmotica reduced water uptake and protein synthesis, though these were immediately resumed upon removal of stress. Results of in vivo labelling of newly synthesized proteins showed differences in the synthesis of many polypeptides when embryos that had imbibed in water passed from the radicle pre-emergence phase to early growth. The synthesis of a group of proteins associated with radicle emergence was reduced during imbibition in PEG or NaCl. All the major proteins of the pre-germination phase were produced in PEG-treated embryos, while some new polypeptides (‘salt stress’ proteins?) were actively synthesized in salt-treated embryos. Upon removal of PEG or NaCl, synthesis of proteins common to the phase of early embryo growth increased, while specific saltimbibition proteins disappeared. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that biochemical processes leading to radicle emergence can be affected by osmotic stress and are likely to be damaged by severe stress.

Changes in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) seed quality were monitored during seed development and maturation in glasshouse experiments in 2 years. The end of the seedfilling period (mass maturity) occurred 35–41 d after anthesis (differing among trusses) in 1989 and 42 d after anthesis in 1990. Seed moisture contents at this developmental stage were 53–72% (wet basis), while the onset of ability to germinate (during 21-d tests at 20°/30°C) and the onset of tolerance to rapid enforced desiccation occurred just before (1990) or just after (1989) mass maturity. In 1989, seed quality was assessed primarily by seedling size in a glasshouse experiment; maximum mean seedling dry weight 25 d after sowing was not achieved until 24–40 d after mass maturity. In 1990, seed quality was assessed primarily by germination following storage; maximum normal germination after 35 d in storage at 40 °C with 14 ± 0.5% moisture content was attained 23 d after mass maturity, but with little difference among seed lots harvested 10 d earlier or up to 30 d later. The results contradict the hypothesis that maximum seed quality is attained at the end of the seed-filling period and that seed viability and vigour begin to decline immediately thereafter.

The effects of development of leek seeds at 20/10°, 25/15° and 30/20°C (day/night) and drying of seed harvested at different developmental stages on subsequent performance were examined in each of 3 years. An increase in temperature from 20/10° to 30/20°C reduced mean seed weight from 2.90 to 2.55 mg as a result of a reduction in the duration of seed growth from 80 to 55 days; seed growth rate was unaffected. Seed moisture content reached a minimum, up to 35 days after the attainment of maximum seed dry weight and 115, 90 and 70 days after anthesis at 20/10°, 25/15° and 30/20°C, respectively. The curves relating seed moisture to time for each temperature regime were mapped onto a single line accounting for >90% of the variation in moisture content, using accumulated day-degrees >6°C instead of chronological time. Seeds were capable of germinating when seed moisture contents were >60% (fresh weight basis), but maximum viability and minimum mean time to germination were not attained until seed moisture contents at harvest had fallen to 20–30%. Germination was little affected by temperature of seed development. Drying immature seeds increased percentage germination. Growing seeds at 30/20°C and drying at 35°C and 30% RH raised the upper temperature limit of germination compared with growing at 20/10°C and drying at 15°C and 30% RH.

Protein disulfide isomerase (PDI E.C. 5.3.4.1) catalyses the formation of disulfide bonds in secretory or cell-surface proteins during their biosynthesis. PDI activity is associated with the microsomal fraction of the cell and has been found in several mammalian tissues and in developing wheat endosperm.

The embryo and aleurone layer of germinating seeds of the wheat cultivar Galahad showed PDI activity associated with a microsome-enriched fraction of cell homogenates PDI activity in microsome-enriched fractions from aleurone layers of normally germinating seeds was significantly higher than in their abnormally germinating counterparts and diminished as germination proceeded.

Dry embryos and germinating embryos showed less PDI activity than aleurone layers. There was no significant difference in PDI activity between microsome-enriched fractions from embryos of normally and abnormally germinating seeds at 3 or 6 days of germination.

Wheat aleurone PDI was partially purified using gel filtration and had a molecular mass of 110–130 kDa and a monomeric molecular mass of ca. 57 kDa on sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.

The effectiveness of ATPase in germinated seed may play an important role in the vigour of germination. The activities of tonoplast and plasma membrane ATPases in two maize (Zea mays L.) lines with different vigour of germination were determined. ATP hydrolysis was measured in microsomal fractions from coleoptiles along with the responses to specific inhibitors for the plasma membrane, tonoplast and mitochondrial ATPases as well as for acid phosphatase. Nitrate-sensitive ATPase activity was 1.5–3.0 times lower in the low-vigour line than in the high-vigour line. Kinetic analysis of ATP hydrolysis at different substrate concentrations revealed the existence of two enzymes in the microsomal fractions of the two lines. The Vmax of enzyme 1 in the low-vigour line was a third of that in the high-vigour line. This enzyme was identified as the nitrate-sensitive or tonoplast ATPase on the basis of measurements of ATP hydrolysis in the presence of specific inhibitors at high (8.12mm) and low (0.77mm) ATP concentrations.