Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-mp689 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-19T21:41:18.776Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Explaining unexplained diarrhea and associating risks and infections

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 August 2007

Donna M. Denno ,
Eileen J. Klein ,
Vincent B. Young ,
James G. Fox ,
David Wang  and
Phillip I. Tarr
Donna M. Denno
Affiliation:
Departments of Health Services and Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
Eileen J. Klein
Affiliation:
Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
Vincent B. Young
Affiliation:
Department of Internal Medicine and Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA02139, USA
James G. Fox
Affiliation:
Department of Internal Medicine and Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA02139, USA
David Wang
Affiliation:
Department of Molecular Microbiology and Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA and
Phillip I. Tarr*
Affiliation:
Department of Pediatrics and Department of Molecular Microbiology, Campus Box 8208, 660 South Euclid Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
*
*Corresponding author. E-mail: tarr@wustl.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Gastrointestinal illnesses are common afflictions. However, knowledge of their etiology is often lacking. Moreover, most cases of infections with reportable enteric pathogens (Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia, Cryptosporidia and Giardia) have sporadic modes of acquisition, yet control measures are often biased towards mitigation of risks discerned by outbreak analysis. To determine the etiology of unexplained diarrhea it is important to study populations that can be matched to appropriate controls and to couple thorough classic microbiologic evaluation on receipt of specimens with archiving and outgrowth capabilities. Research evaluations should address the potential roles of a broad panel of candidate bacterial pathogens including diarrheagenic E. coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Helicobacters and jejuni Campylobacters, and also apply novel massively parallel sequencing and nucleic acid detection technologies that allow the detection of viral pathogens. To fill voids in our knowledge regarding sources of known enteric pathogens it will be critical to extend case-control studies to assess risk factors and exposures to patients with non-epidemic illnesses and to appropriate controls. By filling these gaps in our knowledge it should be possible to formulate rational prevention mechanisms for human gastrointestinal illnesses.

Keywords

diarrhea/epidemiologydiarrhea/microbiologyrisk factorsanimalsdomestic
Type
Review Article
Information
Animal Health Research Reviews , Volume 8 , Issue 1 , June 2007 , pp. 69 - 80
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anon (2007). Multistate outbreak of Salmonella serotype Tennessee infections associated with peanut butter–United States, 2006–2007. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 56: 521–524.Google Scholar
Acheson, D (2000). How does Escherichia coli O157:H7 testing in meat compare with what we are seeing clinically? Journal of Food Protection 63: 819–821.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ackers, ML, Mahon, BE, Leahy, E, Goode, B, Damrow, T, Hayes, PS, Bibb, WF, Rice, DH, Barrett, TJ, Hutwagner, L, Griffin, PM and Slutsker, L (1998). An outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections associated with leaf lettuce consumption. Journal of Infectious Diseases 177: 1588–1593.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adak, GK, Cowden, JM, Nicholas, S and Evans, HS (1995). The Public Health Laboratory Service national case-control study of primary indigenous sporadic cases of Campylobacter infection. Epidemiology and Infection 115: 15–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allander, T, Andreasson, K, Gupta, S, Bjerkner, A, Bogdanovic, G, Persson, MA, Dalianis, T, Ramqvist, T and Andersson, B (2007a). Identification of a third human polyomavirus. Journal of Virology 81: 4130–4136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allander, T, Jartti, T, Gupta, S, Niesters, HG, Lehtinen, P, Osterback, R, Vuorinen, T, Waris, M, Bjerkner, A, Tiveljung-Lindell, A, van den Hoogen, BG, Hyypia, T and Ruuskanen, O (2007b). Human bocavirus and acute wheezing in children. Clinical Infectious Diseases 44: 904–910.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andersen, L (2001). New Helicobacter species in humans. Digestive Diseases 19: 112–115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aureli, P, Fiorucci, GC, Caroli, D, Marchiaro, G, Novara, O, Leone, L and Salmaso, S (2000). An outbreak of febrile gastroenteritis associated with corn contaminated by Listeria monocytogenes. New England Journal of Medicine 342: 1236–1241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beatty, M (2004). Enterotoxin-producing Escherichia coli O169:H41, United States. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10: 518–521.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, BP, Goldoft, M, Goldoft, M, Griffin, PM, Davis, MA, Gordon, DC, Tarr, PI, Bartleson, CA, Lewis, JH, Barrett, TJ, Wells, JG, Baron, R and Kobayashi, J (1994). A multistate outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7-associated bloody diarrhea and hemolytic uremic syndrome from hamburgers. The Washington experience. JAMA 272: 1349–1353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Besser, TE, Hancock, DD, Pritchett, LC, McRae, EM, Rice, DH and Tarr, PI (1997). Duration of detection of fecal excretion of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in cattle. Journal of Infectious Diseases 175: 726–729.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beutin, L, Krause, G, Zimmerman, S, Kaulfuss, S and Gleier, K (2004). Characterization of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli strains isolated from human patients in Germany over a 3-year period. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 42: 1099–1108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bielaszewska, M, Zhang, W, Tarr, P, Sonntag, A and Karch, H (2005). Molecular profiling and phenotype analysis of Escherichia coli 026:H11 and 026:NM: secular and geographic consistency of enterohemorrhagic and enteropathogenic isolates. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 43: 4225–4228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bielaszewska, M, Prager, R, Zhang, W, Friedrich, AW, Mellmann, A, Tschäpe, H and Karch, H (2006). Chromosomal dynamism in progeny of outbreak-related sorbitol-fermenting enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:NM. Applied Environmental Microbiology 72: 1900–1909.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bielaszewska, M, Prager, R, Köck, R, Mellmann, A, Zhang, W, Tschäpe, H, Tarr, PI and Karch, H (2007). Shiga toxin gene loss and transfer in vitro and in vivo during enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O26 infection in humans. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 73: 3144–3150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Birkhead, G, Vogt, RL, Heun, E, Evelti, CM and Patton, CM (1988). A multiple-strain outbreak of Campylobacter enteritis due to consumption of inadequately pasteurized milk. Journal of Infectious Diseases 157: 1095–1097.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blackburn, BG, Craun, GF, Yoder, JS, Hill, V, Calderon, RL, Chen, N, Lee, SH, Levy, DA and Beach, MJ (2004). Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks associated with drinking water – United States, 2001–2002. MMWR. Surveillance Summaries 53: 23–45.Google ScholarPubMed
Blaser, MJ and Reller, LB (1981). Campylobacter enteritis. New England Journal of Medicine 305: 1444–1452.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blaser, MJ, Reller, LB, Luechtefeld, NW and Wang, WL (1982). Campylobacter enteritis in Denver. Western Journal of Medicine 136: 287–290.Google ScholarPubMed
Breitbart, M, Hewson, I, Felts, B, Mahaffy, JM, Nulton, J, Salamon, P and Rohwer, F (2003). Metagenomic analyses of an uncultured viral community from human feces. Journal of Bacteriology 185: 6220–6223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breuer, T, Benkel, DH, Shapiro, RL, Hall, WN, Winnett, MM, Linn, MJ, Neimann, J, Barrett, TJ, Dietrich, S, Downes, FP, Toney, DM, Pearson, JL, Rolka, H, Slutsker, L and Griffin, PM (2001). A multistate outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections linked to alfalfa sprouts grown from contaminated seeds. Emerging Infectious Diseases 7: 977–982.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooks, JT, Bergmire-Sweat, D, Kennedy, M, Hendricks, K, Garcia, M, Marengo, L, Wells, J, Ying, M, Bibb, W, Griffin, PM, Hoekstra, RM and Friedman, CR (2004). Outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O111:H8 infections among attendees of a high school cheerleading camp. Clinical Infectious Diseases 38: 190–198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caeiro, JP, Mathewson, JJ, Smith, MA, Jiang, ZD, Kaplan, MA and Dupont, HL (1999). Etiology of outpatient pediatric nondysenteric diarrhea: a multicenter study in the United States. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 18: 94–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, JV, Mohle-Boetani, J, Reporter, R, Abbott, S, Farrar, J, Brandl, M, Mandrell, R and Werner, SB (2001). An outbreak of Salmonella serotype Thompson associated with fresh cilantro. Journal of Infectious Diseases 183: 984–987.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carroll, AM, Gibson, A and McNamara, EB (2005). Laboratory-based surveillance of human verocytotoxigenic Escherichia coli infection in the Republic of Ireland, 2002–2004. Journal of Medical Microbiology 54: 1163–1169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1981). Multistate outbreak of salmonellosis caused by precooked roast beef. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 30: 391–392.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1986). Campylobacter outbreak associated with raw milk provided on a dairy tour – California. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 35: 311–312.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1991). Multistate outbreak of Salmonella Poona infection – United States and Canada, 1991. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 40: 549–552.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2006). Preliminary FoodNet data on the incidence of infection with pathogens transmitted commonly through food – 10 States, United States, 2005. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 55: 392–395.Google Scholar
Chittick, P, Sulka, A, Tauxe, RV and Fry, AM (2006). A summary of national reports of foodborne outbreaks of Salmonella Heidelberg infections in the United States: clues for disease prevention. Journal of Food Protection 69: 1150–1153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cirioni, O, Giacometti, A, Drenaggi, D, Ancarani, F and Scalise, G (1999). Prevalence and clinical relevance of Blastocystis hominis in diverse patient cohorts. European Journal of Epidemiology 15: 389–393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cobb, CA, Curtis, GD, Bansi, DS, Slade, E, Mehal, W, Mitchell, RG and Chapman, RW (1996). Increased prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes in the faeces of patients receiving long-term H2-antagonists. European Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology 8: 1071–1074.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cody, SH, Glynn, MK, Farrar, JA, Cairns, KL, Griffin, PM, Kobayashi, J, Fyfe, M, Hoffman, R, King, AS, Lewis, JH, Swaminathan, B, Bryant, RG and Vugia, DJ (1999). An outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infection from unpasteurized commercial apple juice. Annals of Internal Medicine 130: 202–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, MB, Nataro, JP, Bernstein, DI, Hawkins, J, Roberts, N and Staat, MA (2005). Prevalence of diarrheagenic Escherichia coli in acute childhood enteritis: a prospective study. Journal of Pediatrics 146: 61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, KA, Dobbs, TE, Hlady, WG, Wells, JG, Barrett, TJ, Puhr, ND, Lancette, GA, Bodager, DW, Toth, BL, Genese, CA, Highsmith, AK, Pilot, KE, Finelli, L and Swerdlow, DL (1998). Outbreak of Salmonella serotype Hartford infections associated with unpasteurized orange juice. JAMA 280: 1504–1509.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cuffari, C, Oligny, L and Seidman, EG (1998). Dientamoeba fragilis masquerading as allergic colitis. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology Nutrition 26: 16–20.Google ScholarPubMed
Dalton, CB, Austin, CC, Sobel, J, Hayes, PS, Bibb, WF, Graves, LM, Swaminathan, B, Proctor, ME and Griffin, PM (1997). An outbreak of gastroenteritis and fever due to Listeria monocytogenes in milk. New England Journal of Medicine 336: 100–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, A, O'Neill, P, Towers, L and Cooke, M (1996). An outbreak of Salmonella typhimurium DT104 food poisoning associated with eating beef. Communicable Disease Report. CDR Reviews 6: R159–R162.Google ScholarPubMed
De Buyser, ML, Dufour, B, Maire, M and Lafarge, V (2001). Implication of milk and milk products in food-borne diseases in France and in different industrialised countries. International Journal of Food Microbiology 67: 1–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Wit, MA, Koopmans, MP, Kortbeek, LM, Wannet, WJ, Vinje, J, van Leusden, F, Bartelds, AI and van Duynhoven, YT (2001a). Sensor, a population-based cohort study on gastroenteritis in the Netherlands: incidence and etiology. American Journal of Epidemiology 154: 666–674.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Wit, MA, Koopmans, MP, Kortbeek, LM, van Leeuwen, NJ, Vinje, J and van Duynhoven, YT (2001b). Etiology of gastroenteritis in sentinel general practices in the Netherlands. Clinical Infectious Diseases 33: 280–288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deming, MS, Tauxe, RV, Blake, PA, Dixon, SE, Fowler, BS, Jones, TS, Lockamy, EA, Patton, CM and Sikes, RO (1987). Campylobacter enteritis at a university: transmission from eating chicken and from cats. American Journal of Epidemiology 126: 526–534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Denno, DM, Stapp, JR, Boster, DR, Qin, X, Clausen, CR, Del Beccaro, KH, Swerdlow, DL, Braden, CR and Tarr, PI (2005). Etiology of diarrhea in pediatric outpatient settings. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 24: 142–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Denno, DM, Keene, WE, Patnode, M, Chudek, P, Duchin, J and Tarr, PI (2007). Risk factors for salmonellosis in children in Washington State. In: 2007 Pediatric Academic Societies Annual Meeting. Toronto, ON, Canada.Google Scholar
Djuretic, T, Wall, PG and Nichols, G (1997). General outbreaks of infectious intestinal disease associated with milk and dairy products in England and Wales: 1992 to 1996. Communicable Disease Report. CDR Reviews 7: R41–R45.Google ScholarPubMed
Eberhart-Phillips, J, Walker, N, Garrett, N, Bell, D, Sinclair, D, Rainger, W and Bates, M (1997). Campylobacteriosis in New Zealand: results of a case-control study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 51: 686–691.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Effler, P, Ieong, MC, Kimura, A, Nakata, M, Burr, R, Cremer, E and Slutsker, L (2001). Sporadic Campylobacter jejuni infections in Hawaii: associations with prior antibiotic use and commercially prepared chicken. Journal of Infectious Diseases 183: 1152–1155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisen, MB and Brown, PO (1999). DNA arrays for analysis of gene expression. Methods in Enzymology 303: 179–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Essers, B, Burnens, AP, Lanfranchini, FM, Somaruga, SG, von Vigier, RO, Schaad, UB, Aebi, C and Bianchetti, MG (2000). Acute community-acquired diarrhea requiring hospital admission in Swiss children. Clinical Infectious Diseases 31: 192–196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ethelberg, S, Olesen, B, Neimann, J, Schiellerup, P, Helms, M, Jensen, C, Bottiger, B, Olsen, KE, Scheutz, F, Gerner-Smidt, P and Molbak, K (2006). Risk factors for diarrhea among children in an industrialized country. Epidemiology 17: 24–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, J, Chalmers, RM, Chart, H, Salmon, RL, Kench, SM, Coleman, TJ, Meadows, D, Morgan-Capner, P, Softley, P, Sillis, M and Thomas, DR (2000). Evidence of persisting serum antibodies to Escherichia coli O157 lipopolysaccharide and Verocytotoxin in members of rural communities in England. European Journal of Epidemiology 16: 885–889.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feng, P, Weagant, SD and Monday, SR (2001). Genetic analysis for virulence factors in Escherichia coli O104:H21 that was implicated in an outbreak of hemorrhagic colitis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 39: 24–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferguson, DD, Scheftel, J, Cronquist, A, Smith, K, Woo-Ming, A, Anderson, E, Knutsen, J, De, AK and Gershman, K (2005). Temporally distinct Escherichia coli 0157 outbreaks associated with alfalfa sprouts linked to a common seed source – Colorado and Minnesota, 2003. Epidemiology and Infection 133: 439–447.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fitch, BR, Sachen, KL, Wilder, SR, Burg, MA, Lacher, DW, Khalife, WT, Whittam, TS and Young, VB (2005). Genetic diversity of Campylobacter sp. isolates from retail chicken products and humans with gastroenteritis in Central Michigan. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 43: 4221–4224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fox, JG (2002). The non-H pylori helicobacters: their expanding role in gastrointestinal and systemic diseases. Gut 50: 273–283.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fox, JG, Chien, CC, Dewhirst, FE, Paster, BJ, Shen, Z, Melito, PL, Woodward, DL and Rodgers, FG (2000). Helicobacter canadensis sp. nov. isolated from humans with diarrhea as an example of an emerging pathogen. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 38: 2546–2549.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frenck, JRW and Clemens, J (2003). Helicobacter in the developing world. Microbes and Infection 5: 705–713.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Friedman, CR, Hoekstra, RM, Samuel, M, Marcus, R, Bender, J, Shiferaw, B, Reddy, S, Ahuja, SD, Helfrick, DL, Hardnett, F, Carter, M, Anderson, B and Tauxe, RV (2004). Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infection in the United States: a case-control study in FoodNet sites. Clinical Infectious Diseases 38 (suppl. 3): S285–S296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gaynor, AM, Nissen, MD, Whiley, DM, Mackay, IM, Lambert, SB, Wu, G, Brennan, DC, Storch, GA, Sloots, TP and Wang, D (2007). Identification of a novel polyomavirus from patients with acute respiratory tract infections. PLoS Pathogenesis 3: e64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gyles, C, Johnson, R, Gao, A, Ziebell, K, Pierard, D, Aleksic, S and Boerlin, P (1998). Association of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli hemolysin with serotypes of Shiga-like-toxin-producing Escherichia coli of human and bovine origins. Applied Environmental Microbiology 64: 4134–4141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haack, JP, Jelacic, S, Besser, TE, Weinberger, E, Kirk, DJ, McKee, GL, Harrison, SM, Musgrave, KJ, Miller, G, Price, TH and Tarr, PI (2003). Escherichia coli O157 exposure in Wyoming and Seattle: serologic evidence of rural risk. Emerging Infectious Disease 9: 1226–1231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hashimoto, H, Mizukoshi, K, Nishi, M, Kawakita, T, Hasui, S, Kato, Y, Ueno, Y, Takeya, R, Okuda, N and Takeda, T (1999). Epidemic of gastrointestinal tract infection including hemorrhagic colitis attributable to Shiga toxin 1-producing Escherichia coli O118:H2 at a junior high school in Japan. Pediatrics 103: E2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haus-Cheymol, R, Espie, E, Che, D, Vaillant, V, and Desenclos, JC (2006). Association between indicators of cattle density and incidence of paediatric haemolytic–uraemic syndrome (HUS) in children under 15 years of age in France between 1996 and 2001: an ecological study. Epidemiology and Infection 134: 712–718.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hellard, ME, Sinclair, MI, Hogg, GG and Fairley, CK (2000). Prevalence of enteric pathogens among community based asymptomatic individuals. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology 15: 290–293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hennessy, TW, Cheng, LH, Kassenborg, H, Ahuja, SD, Mohle-Boetani, J, Marcus, R, Shiferaw, B and Angulo, FJ (2004). Egg consumption is the principal risk factor for sporadic Salmonella serotype Heidelberg infections: a case-control study in FoodNet sites. Clinical Infectious Diseases 38 (suppl. 3): S237–S243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Honish, L, Predy, G, Hislop, N, Chui, L, Kowalewska-Grochowska, K, Trottier, L, Kreplin, C and Zazulak, I (2005). An outbreak of E. coli O157:H7 hemorrhagic colitis associated with unpasteurized gouda cheese. Canadian Journal of Public Health 96: 182–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hopkins, RS, Olmsted, R and Istre, GR (1984). Endemic Campylobacter jejuni infection in Colorado: identified risk factors. American Journal of Public Health 74: 249–250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Humphrey, TJ, Mead, GC and Rowe, B (1988). Poultry meat as a source of human salmonellosis in England and Wales. Epidemiological overview. Epidemiology and Infection 100: 175–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hussein, HS and Bollinger, LM (2005). Prevalence of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli in beef cattle. Journal of Food Protection 68: 2224–2241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ikram, R, Chambers, S, Mitchell, P, Brieseman, MA and Ikam, OH (1994). A case control study to determine risk factors for Campylobacter infection in Christchurch in the summer of 1992–3. New Zealand Medical Journal 107: 430–432.Google ScholarPubMed
Innocent, GT, Mellor, DJ, McEwen, SA, Reilly, WJ, Smallwood, J, Locking, ME, Shaw, DJ, Michel, P, Taylor, DJ, Steele, WB, Gunn, GJ, Ternent, HE, Woolhouse, ME and Reid, SW (2005). Spatial and temporal epidemiology of sporadic human cases of Escherichia coli O157 in Scotland, 1996–1999. Epidemiology and Infection 133: 1033–1041.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jaeger, J and Acheson, D (2000). Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli. Current Infectious Diseases Report 2: 61–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, KE, Thorpe, CM and Sears, CL (2006). The emerging clinical importance of non-O157 Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli. Clinical Infectious Diseases 43: 1587–1595.Google ScholarPubMed
Jones, TF, Ingram, LA, Fullerton, KE, Marcus, R, Anderson, BJ, McCarthy, PV, Vugia, D, Shiferaw, B, Haubert, N, Wedel, S and Angulo, FJ (2006). A case-control study of the epidemiology of sporadic Salmonella infection in infants. Pediatrics 118: 2380–2387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jorgensen, F, Bailey, R, Williams, S, Henderson, P, Wareing, DR, Bolton, FJ, Frost, JA, Ward, L and Humphrey, TJ (2002). Prevalence and numbers of Salmonella and Campylobacter spp. on raw, whole chickens in relation to sampling methods. International Journal of Food Microbiology 76: 151–164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kapikian, AZ, Wyatt, RG, Dolin, R, Thronhill, TS, Kalica, AR and Chanock, RM (1972). Visualization by immune electron microscopy of a 27-nm particle associated with acute infectious nonbacterial gastroenteritis. Journal of Virology 10: 1075–1081.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kapperud, G, Skjerve, E, Bean, NH, Ostroff, SM and Lassen, J (1992). Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case-control study in southeastern Norway. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 30: 3117–3121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kapperud, G, Espeland, G, Wahl, E, Walde, A, Herikstad, H, Gustavsen, S, Tveit, I, Natas, O, Bevanger, L and Digranes, A (2003). Factors associated with increased and decreased risk of Campylobacter infection: a prospective case-control study in Norway. American Journal of Epidemiology 158: 234–242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kehrt, R, Becker, M, Brosicke, H, Kruger, N and Helge, H (1997). Prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection in Nicaraguan children with persistent diarrhea, diagnosed by the 13C-urea breath test. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology Nutrition 25: 84–88.Google ScholarPubMed
Keller, J, Wieland, B, Wittwer, M, Stephan, R and Perreten, V (2007). Distribution and genetic variability among Campylobacter spp. isolates from different animal species and humans in Switzerland. Zoonoses Public Health 54: 2–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keusch, GT and Bennish, ML (1998). Shigellosis. In: Evans, AS and Brachman, PS (eds). Bacterial Infections of Humans: Epidemiology and Control. New York: Springer. pp. 631–656.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kimura, AC, Reddy, V, Marcus, R, Cieslak, PR, Mohle-Boetani, JC, Kassenborg, HD, Segler, SD, Hardnett, FP, Barrett, T and Swerdlow, DL (2004). Chicken consumption is a newly identified risk factor for sporadic Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis infections in the United States: a case-control study in FoodNet sites. Clinical Infectious Diseases 38 (suppl. 3): S244–S252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klein, EJ, Boster, DR, Stapp, JR, Wells, JG, Qin, X, Clausen, CR, Swerdlow, DL, Braden, CR and Tarr, PI (2006). Diarrhea etiology in a children's hospital emergency department: a prospective cohort study. Clinical Infectious Diseases 43: 807–813.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krewski, D, Balbus, J, Butler-Jones, D, Haas, C, Isaac-Renton, J, Roberts, KJ and Sinclair, M (2002). Managing health risks from drinking water – a report to the Walkerton inquiry. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health A 65: 1635–1823.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kudva, IT, Blanch, K and Hovde, CJ (1998). Analysis of Escherichia coli O157:H7 survival in ovine or bovine manure and manure slurry. Applied Environmental Microbiology 64: 3166–3174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lastovica, AJ and le Roux, E (2000). Efficient isolation of campylobacteria from stools. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 38: 2798–2799.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lawson, A, Logan, J, O'Neill, G, Desai, M and Stanley, J (1999). Large-scale survey of Campylobacter species in human gastroenteritis by PCR and PCR-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 37: 3860–3864.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lehner, A, Tasara, T and Stephan, R (2005). Relevant aspects of Arcobacter spp. as potential foodborne pathogen. International Journal of Medical Microbiology 102: 127–135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Locking, ME, O'Brien, SJ, Reilly, WJ, Wright, EM, Campbell, DM, Coia, JE, Browning, LM and Ramsay, CN (2001). Risk factors for sporadic cases of Escherichia coli O157 infection: the importance of contact with animal excreta. Epidemiology and Infection 127: 215–220.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lynch, M, Painter, J, Woodruff, R and Braden, C (2006). Surveillance for foodborne-disease outbreaks – United States, 1998–2002. MMWR. Surveillance Summaries 55: 1–42.Google ScholarPubMed
Maguire, HC, Codd, AA, Mackay, VE, Rowe, B and Mitchell, E (1993). A large outbreak of human salmonellosis traced to a local pig farm. Epidemiology and Infection 110: 239–246.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marcus, R, Varma, JK, Medus, C, Boothe, EJ, Anderson, BJ, Crume, T, Fullerton, KE, Moore, MR, White, PL, Lyszkowicz, E, Voetsch, AC and Angulo, FJ (2007). Re-assessment of risk factors for sporadic Salmonella serotype Enteritidis infections: a case-control study in five FoodNet Sites, 2002–2003. Epidemiology and Infection 135: 84–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCarthy, TA, Barrett, NL, Hadler, JL, Salsbury, B, Howard, RT, Dingman, DW, Brinkman, CD, Bibb, WF and Cartter, ML (2001). Hemolytic-uremic syndrome and Escherichia coli O121 at a lake in Connecticut, 1999. Pediatrics 108: E59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mead, PS, Slutsker, L, Dietz, V, McCaig, LF, Bresee, JS, Shapiro, C, Griffin, PM and Tauxe, RV (1999). Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerging Infectious Diseases 5: 607–625.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Melito, P, Woodward, D, Bernard, K, Price, L, Khakhria, R, Johnson, W and Rodgers, F (2000). Differentiation of clinical Helicobacter pullorum isolates from related Helicobacter and Campylobacter species. Helicobacter 5: 142–147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mermin, J, Hutwagner, L, Vugia, D, Shallow, S, Daily, P, Bender, J, Koehler, J, Marcus, R and Angulo, FJ (2004). Reptiles, amphibians, and human Salmonella infection: a population-based, case-control study. Clinical Infectious Diseases 38 (suppl. 3): S253–S261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Michel, P, Wilson, JB, Martin, SW, Clarke, RC, McEwen, SA and Gyles, CL (1998). A descriptive study of verocytotoxigenic Escherichia coli (VTEC) cases reported in Ontario, 1990–1994. Canadian Journal of Public Health 89: 253–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Michel, P, Wilson, JB, Martin, SW, Clarke, RC, McEwen, SA and Gyles, CL (1999). Temporal and geographical distributions of reported cases of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infection in Ontario. Epidemiology and Infection 122: 193–200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Michel, P, Wilson, JB, Martin, SW, Clarke, RC, McEwen, SA and Gyles, CL (2000). Estimation of the under-reporting rate for the surveillance of Escherichia coli O157:H7 cases in Ontario, Canada. Epidemiology and Infection 125: 35–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Michino, H, Araki, K, Minami, S, Takaya, S, Sakai, N, Miyazaki, M, Ono, A and Yanagawa, H (1999). Massive outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infection in schoolchildren in Sakai City, Japan, associated with consumption of white radish sprouts. American Journal of Epidemiology 150: 787–796.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miettinen, MK, Siitonen, A, Heiskanen, P, Bjorkroth, KJ and Korkeala, HJ (1999). Molecular epidemiology of an outbreak of febrile gastroenteritis caused by Listeria monocytogenes in cold-smoked rainbow trout. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 37: 2358–2360.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Misselwitz, J, Karch, H, Bielazewska, M, John, U, Ringelmann, F, Ronnefarth, G and Patzer, L (2003). Cluster of hemolytic–uremic syndrome caused by Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O26:H11. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 22: 349–354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mora, A, Blanco, M, Blanco, JE, Dahbi, G, Lopez, C, Justel, P, Alonso, MP, Echeita, A, Bernardez, MI, Gonzalez, EA and Blanco, J (2007). Serotypes, virulence genes and intimin types of Shiga toxin (verocytotoxin)-producing Escherichia coli isolates from minced beef in Lugo (Spain) from 1995 through 2003. BMC Microbiology 7: 13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nataro, JP (2005). Enteroaggregative Escherichia coli pathogenesis. Current Opinion Gastroenterology 21: 4–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Nataro, JP and Kaper, JB (1998). Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 11: 142–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nielsen, EM, Engberg, J and Madsen, M (1997). Distribution of serotypes of Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli from Danish patients, poultry, cattle and swine. FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology 19: 47–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Reilly, CE, Bowen, AB, Perez, NE, Sarisky, JP, Shepherd, CA, Miller, MD, Hubbard, BC, Herring, M, Buchanan, SD, Fitzgerald, CC, Hill, V, Arrowood, MJ, Xiao, LX, Hoekstra, RM, Mintz, ED and Lynch, MF (2007). A waterborne outbreak of gastroenteritis with multiple etiologies among resort island visitors and residents: Ohio, 2004. Clinical Infectious Diseases 44: 506–512.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, SJ, Miller, G, Breuer, T, Kennedy, M, Higgins, C, Walford, J, McKee, G, Fox, K, Bibb, W and Mead, P (2002). A waterborne outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections and hemolytic uremic syndrome: implications for rural water systems. Emerging Infectious Diseases 8: 370–375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ooi, S and Lorber, B (2005). Gastroenteritis due to Listeria monocytogenes. Clinical Infectious Diseases 40: 1327–1332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oosterom, J, den Uyl, CH, Banffer, JR and Huisman, J (1984). Epidemiological investigations on Campylobacter jejuni in households with a primary infection. Journal of Hygiene (London) 93: 325–332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parry, SM, Salmon, RL, Willshaw, GA and Cheasty, T (1998). Risk factors for and prevention of sporadic infections with vero cytotoxin (Shiga toxin) producing Escherichia coli O157. Lancet 351: 1019–1022.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Passaro, DJ, Taylor, DN, Meza, R, Cabrera, L, Gilman, RH and Parsonnet, J (2001). Acute Helicobacter pylori infection is followed by an increase in diarrheal disease among Peruvian children. Pediatrics 108: E87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paton, AW, Ratcliff, RM, Doyle, RM, Seymour-Murray, J, Davos, D, Lanser, JA and Paton, JC (1996). Molecular microbiological investigation of an outbreak of hemolytic–uremic syndrome caused by dry fermented sausage contaminated with Shiga-like toxin-producing Escherichia coli. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 34: 1622–1627.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paton, AW, Woodrow, MC, Doyle, RM, Lanser, JA and Paton, JC (1999). Molecular characterization of a Shiga toxigenic Escherichia coli O113:H21 strain lacking eae responsible for a cluster of cases of hemolytic–uremic syndrome. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 37: 3357–3361.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potter, RC, Kaneene, JB and Hall, WN (2003). Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter jejuni infections in rural Michigan: a prospective case-control study. American Journal of Public Health 93: 2118–2123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Preiss, U, Ockert, G, Broemme, S and Otto, A (1991). On the clinical importance of Dientamoeba fragilis infections in childhood. Journal of Hygiene, Epidemiology, Microbiology and Immunology 35: 27–34.Google ScholarPubMed
Public Health Agency of Canada (1999). Outbreak of Salmonella serotype Muenchen infections associated with unpasteurized orange juice – United States and Canada, June 1999. Canada Communicable Disease Report 25: 164–167.Google Scholar
Rahman, MM, Mahalanabis, D, Sarker, SA, Bardhan, PK, Alvarez, JO, Hildebrand, P, Beglinger, C and Gyr, K (1998). Helicobacter pylori colonization in infants and young children is not necessarily associated with diarrhoea. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 44: 283–287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rahn, K, Renwick, SA, Johnson, RP, Wilson, JB, Clarke, RC, Alves, D, McEwen, S, Lior, H and Spika, J (1997). Persistence of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in dairy cattle and the dairy farm environment. Epidemiology and Infection 119: 251–259.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reymond, D, Johnson, RP, Karmali, MA, Petric, M, Winkler, M, Johnson, S, Rahn, K, Renwick, S, Wilson, J, Clarke, RC and Spika, J (1996). Neutralizing antibodies to Escherichia coli Vero cytotoxin 1 and antibodies to O157 lipopolysaccharide in healthy farm family members and urban residents. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 34: 2053–2057.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riedo, FX, Pinner, RW, Tosca, ML, Cartter, ML, Graves, LM, Reeves, MW, Weaver, RE, Plikaytis, BD and Broome, CV (1994). A point-source food-borne listeriosis outbreak: documented incubation period and possible mild illness. Journal of Infectious Diseases 170: 693–696.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riley, LW, Remis, RS, Helgerson, SD, McGee, HB, Wells, JG, Davis, BR, Hebert, RJ, Olcott, ES, Johnson, LM, Hargrett, NT, Blake, PA and Cohen, ML (1983). Hemorrhagic colitis associated with a rare Escherichia coli serotype. New England Journal of Medicine 308: 681–685.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riley, TV, Cooper, M, Bell, B and Golledge, CL (1995). Community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Clinical Infectious Diseases 20: S263–S265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodrigues, LC, Cowden, JM, Wheeler, JG, Sethi, D, Wall, PG, Cumberland, P, Tompkins, DS, Hudson, MJ, Roberts, JA and Roderick, PJ (2001). The study of infectious intestinal disease in England: risk factors for cases of infectious intestinal disease with Campylobacter jejuni infection. Epidemiology and Infection 127: 185–193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rothenbacher, D, Blaser, MJ, Bode, G and Brenner, H (2000). Inverse relationship between gastric colonization of Helicobacter pylori and diarrheal illnesses in children: results of a population-based cross-sectional study. Journal of Infectious Diseases 182: 1446–1449.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sagoo, SK, Little, CL, Ward, L, Gillespie, IA and Mitchell, RT (2003). Microbiological study of ready-to-eat salad vegetables from retail establishments uncovers a national outbreak of salmonellosis. Journal of Food Protection 66: 403–409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salfield, NJ and Pugh, EJ (1987). Campylobacter enteritis in young children living in households with puppies. British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Edition) 294: 21–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Samadpour, M, Ongerth, JE, Liston, J, Tran, N, Nguyen, D, Whittam, TS, Wilson, RA and Tarr, PI (1994). Occurrence of Shiga-like toxin-producing Escherichia coli in retail fresh seafood, beef, lamb, pork, and poultry from grocery stores in Seattle, Washington. Applied Environmental Microbiology 60: 1038–1040.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Samadpour, M, Barbour, MW, Nguyen, T, Cao, TM, Buck, F, Depavia, GA, Mazengia, E, Yang, P, Alfi, D, Lopes, M and Stopforth, JD (2006). Incidence of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli, Escherichia coli O157, Salmonella, and Listeria monocytogenes in retail fresh ground beef, sprouts, and mushrooms. Journal of Food Protection 69: 441–443.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sauders, BD, Pettit, D, Currie, B, Suits, P, Evans, A, Stellrecht, K, Dryja, DM, Slate, D and Wiedmann, M (2005). Low prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes in human stool. Journal of Food Protection 68: 178–181.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scheil, W, Cameron, S, Dalton, C, Murray, C and Wilson, D (1998). A South Australian Salmonella Mbandaka outbreak investigation using a database to select controls. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 22: 536–539.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmid, GP, Schaefer, RE, Plikaytis, BD, Schaefer, JR, Bryner, JH, Wintermeyer, LA and Kaufmann, AF (1987). A one-year study of endemic campylobacteriosis in a midwestern city: association with consumption of raw milk. Journal of Infectious Diseases 156: 218–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schonberg-Norio, D, Takkinen, J, Hanninen, ML, Katila, ML, Kaukoranta, SS, Mattila, L and Rautelin, H (2004). Swimming and Campylobacter infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10: 1474–1477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schorr, D, Schmid, H, Rieder, HL, Baumgartner, A, Vorkauf, H and Burnens, A (1994). Risk factors for Campylobacter enteritis in Switzerland. Zentralblatt fur Hygiene und Umweltmedizin 196: 327–337.Google ScholarPubMed
Sherman, P and Tarr, P (2005). Confirmation of an old adage: you find what you seek. Journal of Pediatrics. 146: 11–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shigematsu, M, Kaufmann, ME, Charlett, A, Niho, Y and Pitt, TL (2000). An epidemiological study of Plesiomonas shigelloides diarrhoea among Japanese travellers. Epidemiology and Infection 125: 523–530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sivapalasingam, S, Friedman, CR, Cohen, L and Tauxe, RV (2004). Fresh produce: a growing cause of outbreaks of food-borne illness in the United States, 1973 through 1997. Journal of Food Protection 67: 2342–2353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sobel, J, Hirshfeld, AB, McTigue, K, Burnett, CL, Altekruse, S, Brenner, F, Malcolm, G, Mottice, SL, Nichols, CR and Swerdlow, DL (2000). The pandemic of Salmonella enteritidis phage type 4 reaches Utah: a complex investigation confirms the need for continuing rigorous control measures. Epidemiology and Infection 125: 1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Solnick, J and Schauer, D (2001). Emergence of diverse Helicobacter species in the pathogenesis of gastric and enterohepatic diseases. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 14: 59–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Son, I, Englen, MD, Berrang, ME, Fedorka-Cray, PJ and Harrison, MA (2007). Prevalence of Arcobacter and Campylobacter on broiler carcasses during processing. International Journal of Food Microbiology 113: 16–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
St Louis, ME, Morse, DL, Potter, ME, DeMelfi, TM, Guzewich, JJ, Tauxe, RV and Blake, PA (1988). The emergence of grade A eggs as a major source of Salmonella enteritidis infections. New implications for the control of salmonellosis. JAMA 259: 2103–2107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strachan, NJ, Dunn, GM, Locking, ME, Reid, TM and Ogden, ID (2006). Escherichia coli O157: burger bug or environmental pathogen? International Journal of Food Microbiology 112: 129–137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Studahl, A and Andersson, Y (2000). Risk factors for indigenous Campylobacter infection: a Swedish case-control study. Epidemiology and Infection 125: 269–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sullivan, PB, Thomas, JE, Wight, DG, Neale, G, Eastham, EJ, Corrah, T, Lloyd-Evans, N and Greenwood, BM (1990). Helicobacter pylori in Gambian children with chronic diarrhoea and malnutrition. Archives of Diseases in Child hood 65: 189–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Svenungsson, B, Lagergren, A, Ekwall, E, Evengard, B, Hedlund, KO, Karnell, A, Lofdahl, S, Svensson, L and Weintraub, A (2000). Enteropathogens in adult patients with diarrhea and healthy control subjects: a 1-year prospective study in a Swedish clinic for infectious diseases. Clinical Infectious Diseases 30: 770–778.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swerdlow, DL, Woodruff, BA, Brady, RC, Griffin, PM, Tippen, S, Donnell, HD Jr, Geldreich, E, Payne, BJ, Meyer, A Jr, Wells, JG, Gveene, KD, Bright, M, Bean, NH and Blake, PS (1992). A waterborne outbreak in Missouri of Escherichia coli O157:H7 associated with bloody diarrhea and death. Annals of Internal Medicine 117: 812–819.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tarr, PI and Neill, MA (1996). The problem of non-O157:H7 Shiga toxin (verocytotoxin)-producing Escherichia coli. Journal of Infectious Diseases 174: 1136–1139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tenkate, TD and Stafford, RJ (2001). Risk factors for Campylobacter infection in infants and young children: a matched case-control study. Epidemiology and Infection 127: 399–404.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, JS, Cahoon, FE and Hodge, DS (1986). Rate of Campylobacter spp. isolation in three regions of Ontario, Canada, from 1978 to 1985. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 24: 876–878.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
United States Department of Agriculture (2002). USDA Census of Agriculture.Google Scholar
Valcour, JE, Michel, P, McEwen, SA and Wilson, JB (2002). Associations between indicators of livestock farming intensity and incidence of human Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli infection. Emerging Infectious Diseases 8: 252–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vernacchio, L, Vezina, RM, Mitchell, AA, Lesko, SM, Plaut, AG and Acheson, DW (2006a). Characteristics of persistent diarrhea in a community-based cohort of young US children. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology Nutrition 43: 52–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vernacchio, L, Vezina, RM, Mitchell, AA, Lesko, SM, Plaut, AG and Acheson, DW (2006b). Diarrhea in American infants and young children in the community setting: incidence, clinical presentation and microbiology. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 25: 2–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, D, Coscoy, L, Zylberberg, M, Avila, PC, Boushey, HA, Ganem, D and DeRisi, JL (2002). Microarray-based detection and genotyping of viral pathogens. Procedings of the National Academy of Science, USA 99: 15687–15692.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, D, Urisman, A, Liu, YT, Springer, M, Ksiazek, TG, Erdman, DD, Mardis, ER, Hickenbotham, M, Magrini, V, Eldred, J, Latreille, JP, Wilson, RK, Ganem, D and DeRisi, JL (2003). Viral discovery and sequence recovery using DNA microarrays. PLoS Biology 1: E2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, G, Zhao, T and Doyle, MP (1996). Fate of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 in bovine feces. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 62: 2567–2570.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Washington State Department of Health. (2006). Washington State Department of Health Communicable Disease Report 2005. Washington State Department of Health.Google Scholar
Waters, V, Ford-Jones, EL, Petric, M, Fearon, M, Corey, P and Moineddein, R (2000). Etiology of community-acquired pediatric viral diarrhea: a prospective longitudinal study in hospitals, emergency departments, pediatric practices and child care centers during the winter rotavirus outbreak, 1997 to 1998. The Pediatric Rotavirus Epidemiology Study for Immunization Study Group. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 19: 843–848.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wegener, HC and Baggesen, DL (1996). Investigation of an outbreak of human salmonellosis caused by Salmonella enterica ssp. enterica serovar Infantis by use of pulsed field gel electrophoresis. International Journal of Food Microbiology 32: 125–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Werber, D, Fruth, A, Liesegang, A, Littmann, M, Buchholz, U, Prager, R, Karch, H, Breuer, T, Tschape, H and Ammon, A (2002). A multistate outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O26:H11 infections in Germany, detected by molecular subtyping surveillance. Journal of Infectious Diseases 186: 419–422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wingstrand, A, Neimann, J, Engberg, J, Nielsen, EM, Gerner-Smidt, P, Wegener, HC and Molbak, K (2006). Fresh chicken as main risk factor for campylobacteriosis, Denmark. Emerging Infectious Diseases 12: 280–285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoder, JS, Blackburn, BG, Craun, GF, Hill, V, Levy, DA, Chen, N, Lee, SH, Calderon, RL and Beach, MJ (2004). Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks associated with recreational water – United States, 2001–2002. MMWR Surveillance Summaries 53: 1–22.Google ScholarPubMed
Zhang, T, Breitbart, M, Lee, WH, Run, JQ, Wei, CL, Soh, SW, Hibberd, ML, Liu, ET, Rohwer, F and Ruan, Y (2006). RNA viral community in human feces: prevalence of plant pathogenic viruses. PLoS Biology 4: e3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhao, C, Ge, B, De Villena, J, Sudler, R, Yeh, E, Zhao, S, White, DG, Wagner, D and Meng, J (2001). Prevalence of Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli, and Salmonella serovars in retail chicken, turkey, pork, and beef from the Greater Washington, D.C., area. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 67: 5431–5436.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed