Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-r7xzm Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-26T17:12:34.780Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Frightened, threatening, and dissociative parental behavior in low-risk samples: Description, discussion, and interpretations

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 March 2006

ERIK HESSE
Affiliation:
University of California at Berkeley Leiden University
MARY MAIN
Affiliation:
University of California at Berkeley

Abstract

In 1990 we advanced the hypothesis that frightened and frightening (FR) parental behavior would prove to be linked to both unresolved (U) adult attachment status as identified in the Adult Attachment Interview and to infant disorganized/disoriented (D) attachment as assessed in the Ainsworth Strange Situation. Here, we present a coding system for identifying and scoring the intensity of the three primary forms of FR behavior (frightened, threatening, and dissociative) as well as three subsidiary forms. We review why each primary form may induce fear of the parent (the infant's primary “haven of safety”), placing the infant in a disorganizing approach-flight paradox. We suggest that, being linked to the parent's own unintegrated traumatic experiences (often loss or maltreatment), FR behaviors themselves are often guided by parental fright, and parallel the three “classic” mammalian responses to fright: flight, attack, and freezing behavior. Recent studies of U to FR, as well as FR to D relations are presented, including findings regarding AMBIANCE/FR+. Links between dissociation, FR, U, and D are explored. Parallel processing and working memory are discussed as they relate to these phenomena.The work described in this paper was supported by a Guggenheim fellowship to the second author and by grants from the William B. Harris Foundation and the Amini Foundation for the Study of Affects. We are grateful to Alberto Amengual, Giovanni Liotti, and John Watson for directing us to varying portions of the literature discussed. Alvin Nye Main first pointed to the relevance of the quotation from Darwin.

Type
SPECIAL SECTION ARTICLE
Copyright
2006 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abrams, K. Y. (2000). Pathways to disorganization: a study concerning varying categories of parental frightened and frightening behaviors as related to infant disorganized attachment. Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
Abrams, K. Y., Rifkin, A., & Hesse, E. (2006). Examining the role of parental frightened/frightening subcategories in predicting disorganized attachment within a brief observational procedure. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 345361.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Bell, S. M., & Stayton, D. J. (1971). Individual differences in Strange Situation behavior of one-year-olds. In H. R. Schaffer (Ed.), The origins of human social relations (pp. 1757). London: Academic Press.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Eichberg, C. G. (1991). Effects on infant–mother attachment of mother's unresolved loss of an attachment figure, or other traumatic experience. In C. M. Parkes, J. Stevenson-Hinde, & P. Marris (Eds.), Attachment across the life cycle (pp. 160183). London: Routledge.
Allen, J. P., Hauser, S. T., & Borman-Spurrell, E. (1996). Attachment theory as a framework for understanding sequelae of severe adolescent psychopathology: An 11-year follow-up study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 254263.Google Scholar
Ammaniti, M., & Speranza, A. M. (1994). Maternal representations and disorganized patterns of attachment in children. Poster presented at the International Conference on Infant Studies, Paris.
Arnsten, A. F. T. (1998). Catecholamine modulation of prefrontal cortical cognitive function. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2, 436447.Google Scholar
Baars, B. J. (2003, October). The global brainweb: An update on global workspace theory. Science and Consciousness Review, 110.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1994). Developments in the concept of working memory. Neuropsychology, 8, 485493.Google Scholar
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Schuengel, C., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1999). Unresolved loss due to miscarriage: An addition to the Adult Attachment Interview. Attachment and Human Development, 1, 157170.Google Scholar
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2003). No association of the dopamine (DRD4) and -521C/T polymorphisms with infant attachment disorganization. Attachment and Human Development, 6, 211218.Google Scholar
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2005). Disorganized infant attachment and preventive interventions: A review and meta-analysis. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26, 191216.Google Scholar
Barnett, D., Hunt, K. H., Butler, C. M., McCaskill, J. W., IV, Kaplan-Estrin, M., & Pipp-Siegel, S. (1999). Indices of attachment disorganization among toddlers with neurological and non-neurological problems. In J. Solomon & C. George (Eds.), Attachment disorganization (pp. 189212). New York: Guilford Press.
Behrens, K. (2005). Mothers' attachment status as determined by the Adult Attachment Interview predicts their 6-year-olds' responses to separation and reunion. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
Beilock, S. L., & Carr, T. H. (2001). On the fragility of skilled performance: What governs choking under pressure? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 701725.Google Scholar
Benoit, D., Madigan, S., & Goldberg, S. (2003). Presentation in symposium on frightened/frightening parental behavior. Presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Tampa, FL.
Bokhorst, C. L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Fonagy, P., & Schuengel, C. (2003). The importance of shared environment in mother–infant attachment security: A behavioral genetic study. Child Development, 74, 17691782.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1958). The nature of the child's tie to his mother. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 39, 350373.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1969/1982). Attachment and Loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vol. 3. Loss, sadness and depression. New York: Basic Books.
Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895/1986). Studies on hysteria. New York: Pelican Books. (Original work published 1895)
Busch, A., Cowan, P., & Cowan, C. (2005). Unresolved/disorganized responses to loss during the AAA are related to observed difficulties in women's marital and parental relationships. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Carlson, E. A. (1990). Individual differences in quality of attachment organization of high-risk adolescent mothers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University.
Carlson, E. A. (1998). A prospective longitudinal study of disorganized/disoriented attachment. Child Development, 69, 11071128.Google Scholar
Carlson, E. B., & Putnam, F. W. (1993). An update on the Dissociative Experiences Scale. Dissociation, 7, 1627.Google Scholar
Carlson, V., Cicchetti, D., Barnett, D., & Braunwald, K. (1989). Disorganized/disoriented attachment relationships in maltreated infants. Developmental Psychology, 25, 525531.Google Scholar
Cassidy, J. (1999). The nature of the child's ties. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 320). New York: Guilford Press.
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597600.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1997). The role of self-organization in the promotion of resilience in maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 799817.Google Scholar
Creasey, G. (2002). Associations between working models of attachment and conflict management behavior in romantic couples. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49, 365375.Google Scholar
Crick, F., & Koch, C. (1998). Consciousness and neuroscience. Cerebral Cortex, 8, 97107.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1839/1972). The voyage of the Beagle. New York: Bantum.
Darwin, C. (1872). The expression of emotions in man and animals. London: John Murray.
Dennett, D. C. (1991). Consciousness explained. Boston: Little, Brown.
DeOliveira, C. A., Moran, G., & Pederson, D. R. (2005). Understanding the link between maternal adult attachment classifications and feelings about emotions. Attachment and Human Development, 7, 153170.Google Scholar
D'Esposito, M., & Postle, B. R. (2002). The neural basis of working memory storage, rehearsal, and control processes: Evidence from patient and functional magnetic resonance imaging studies. In L. Squire & D. Schacter (Eds.), Neuropsychology of memory (3rd ed., pp. 215224). New York: Guilford Press.
Elzinga, B. M., & Roelofs, K. (2005). Cortisol-induced impairments of working memory require acute sympathetic activation. Behavioral Neuroscience, 119, 98103.Google Scholar
George, C., Kaplan, N., & Main, M. (1984, 1985, 1996). Adult Attachment Interview Protocol. Unpublished manuscript (1st–3rd eds.). University of California, Berkeley, Department of Psychology.
George, C., & Solomon, J. (1996). Representational models of relationships: Links between caregiving and attachment. Infant Mental Health Journal, 1, 198216.Google Scholar
Goldberg, S., Benoit, D., Blokland, K., & Madigan, S. (2003). Atypical maternal behavior, maternal representations, and infant disorganized attachment. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 239257.Google Scholar
Gribneau, N. I. (2005). Is adult attachment status reflected in brain responses to emotional stimuli? In student poster symposium, Attachment and responses to emotional challenges: Cultural, psychological, and biological perspectives. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Atlanta, GA.
Grienberger, J., Kelley, K., & Slade, A. (2005). Maternal reflective functioning, mother–infant affective communication, and infant attachment: Exploring the link between mental states and observed caregiving behavior in the transmission of attachment. Attachment and Human Development, 7, 299311.Google Scholar
Gurney, K. N., Prescott, T. J., & Redgrave, P. (1998). The basal ganglia viewed as an action selection device. Paper presented at the Eighth International Conference on Artificial Neural Networks, September 2–4.
Heinicke, C., Goorsky, M., Levine, M., Ponce, V., Ruth, G., Silverman, M., et al. (in press). Pre- and post-natal antecedents of a home visiting intervention and family development outcome. Infant Mental Health Journal.
Heinicke, C., & Westheimer, I. (1966). Brief separations. New York: International Universities Press.
Hesse, E. (1996). Discourse, memory, and the Adult Attachment Interview: A note with emphasis on the emerging “Cannot Classify” category. Infant Mental Health Journal, 17, 411.Google Scholar
Hesse, E. (1999). The Adult Attachment Interview: Historical and current perspectives. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment (pp. 395433). New York: Guilford Press.
Hesse, E., & Jacobvitz, D. (2003). Discussion for symposium on frightened/frightening parental behavior. Presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Tampa, FL.
Hesse, E., & Main, M. (2000). Disorganization in infant and adult attachment: Description, correlates, and implications for developmental psychopathology. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 48, 10971127.Google Scholar
Hesse, E., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1999). Propensities towards absorption are related to lapses in the monitoring of reasoning or discourse during the Adult Attachment Interview: A preliminary investigation. Attachment and Human Development, 1, 6791.Google Scholar
Hilgard, E. R. (1977/1986). Divided consciousness: Multiple controls in human thought and action. New York: Wiley.
Horowitz, M. J. (1976). Stress response syndromes. New York: Jason Aronson.
Hughes, P., & McGauley, G. (1997). Mother–infant interaction during the first year with a child who shows disorganization of attachment. British Journal of Psychotherapy, 14, 147158.Google Scholar
Hughes, P., Turton, P., Hopper, E., McGauley, G. A., & Fonagy, P. (in press). Disorganized attachment behavior among infants born subsequent to stillbirth. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry.
Jacobvitz, D., & Hazen, N. (1999). Developmental pathways from infant disorganization to childhood peer relationships. In J. Solomon & C. George (Eds.), Attachment disorganization (pp. 127159). New York: Guilford Press.
Jacobvitz, D., Leon, K., & Hazen, N. (2006). Does expectant mothers' unresolved trauma predict frightened/frightening maternal behavior? Risk and protective factors. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 363380.Google Scholar
James, W. (1890/1983). The principles of psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1890)
Janet, P. (1907/1965). The major symptoms of hysteria. New York: Hafner. (Original work published 1907)
Johnson, M. K. (1991). Reflection, reality monitoring and the self. In Mental Imagery: Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Conference of the American Association for the Study of Imagery. New York: Plenum Press.
Kaplan, N. (1987). Individual differences in 6-year-old's thoughts about separation: Predicted from attachment to mother at age 1. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, Department of Psychology.
Kermoian, R., & Campos, J. J. (1988). Locomotor experience: A facilitator of spatial cognitive development. Child Development, 59, 595624.Google Scholar
Kihlstrom, J. F. (1987). The cognitive unconscious. Science, 237, 14451452.Google Scholar
Kihlstrom, J. F. (1997). Consciousness and me-ness. In J. D. Cohen & J. W. Schooler (Eds.), Scientific approaches to consciousness. Carnegie Mellon Symposium on Cognition (pp. 451468). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Klinnert, M. D., Campos, J. J., Sorce, J. F., Emde, R., & Svedja, M. (1983). Emotions as behavior regulators: Social referencing in infancy. In R. Plutchik & H. Kellerman (Eds.), The emotions (Vol. 2). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Lakatos, K., Toth, I., Nemoda, Z., Ney, K., Sasvari-Szekely, M., & Gervai, J. (2000). Dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) polymorphism is associated with attachment disorganization in infants. Molecular Psychiatry, 5, 633637.Google Scholar
LeDoux, J. (1996). The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Liotti, G. (1992). Disorganized/disoriented attachment in the etiology of the dissociative disorders. Dissociation, 5, 196204.Google Scholar
Liotti, G. (1999). Disorganization of attachment as a model for understanding dissociative psychopathology. In J. Solomon & C. George (Eds.), Attachment disorganization (pp. 291317). New York: Guilford Press.
Lyons-Ruth, K., Bronfman, E., & Atwood, G. (1999). A relational diathesis model of hostile–helpless states of mind: Expressions in mother–infant interaction. In J. Solomon & C. George (Eds.), Attachment disorganization (pp. 3370). New York: Guilford Press.
Lyons-Ruth, K., Bronfman, E., & Parsons, E. (1999). Maternal frightened, frightening, or atypical behavior and disorganized infant attachment patterns. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 64(3), 6796.Google Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K., Connell, D. B., Zoll, D., & Stahl, J. (1987). Infants at social risk: Relations among infant maltreatment, maternal behavior, and infant behavior. Developmental Psychology, 23, 223232.Google Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K., & Jacobvitz, D. (1999). Attachment disorganization: Unresolved loss, relational violence, and lapses in behavioral and attentional strategies. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment (pp. 520554). New York: Guilford Press.
Lyons-Ruth, K., Yellin, C., Melnick, S., & Atwood, G. (2003). Childhood experiences of trauma and loss have different relations to maternal unresolved and Hostile–Helpless states of mind on the AAI. Attachment and Human Development, 5, 330352.Google Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K., Yellin, C., Melnick, S., & Atwood, G. (2005). Expanding the concept of unresolved mental states: Hostile–helpless states of mind on the Adult Attachment Interview are associated with disorganized mother–infant communication and infant disorganizaton. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 123.Google Scholar
Macfie, J., Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2001a). The development of dissociation in maltreated preschool-aged children. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 253234.Google Scholar
Macfie, J., Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2001b). Dissociation in maltreated versus nonmaltreated preschool-aged children. Child Abuse and Neglect, 25, 12531267.Google Scholar
Madigan, S., Moran, G., & Pederson, R. (2006). Unresolved states of mind, disorganized attachment relationships, and disrupted mother–infant interactions of adolescent mothers and their infants. Developmental Psychology.Google Scholar
Main, M. (1981). Avoidance in the service of attachment: A working paper. In K. Immelmann, G. Barlow, L. Petrinovitch, & M. Main (Eds.), Behavioral development: The Bielefeld interdisciplinary project (pp. 651693). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Main, M. (1990). Cross-cultural studies of attachment organization: Recent studies, changing methodologies and the concept of conditional strategies. Human Development, 33, 4861.Google Scholar
Main, M. (1993). Discourse, prediction, and recent studies in attachment: Implications for psychoanalysis. Journal of the American Psychoanaltic Association, 41, 209244.Google Scholar
Main, M. (1999). Epilogue. Attachment theory: Eighteen points with suggestions for future studies. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research & clinical applications (pp. 845888). New York: Guilford Press.
Main, M. (2000). The Adult Attachment Interview: Fear, attention, safety and discourse processes. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 48, 10551096.Google Scholar
Main, M., & Cassidy, J. (1988). Categories of response to reunion with the parent at age 6: Predicted from infant attachment classifications and stable over a 1-month period. Developmental Psychology, 24, 415426.Google Scholar
Main, M., & Goldwyn, R. (1984–1998). Adult attachment scoring and classification system. Unpublished manuscript, University of California at Berkeley, Department of Psychology.
Main, M., Goldwyn, R., & Hesse, E. (2002). Adult attachment scoring and classification system. Unpublished manuscript, University of California at Berkeley, Department of Psychology.
Main, M., & Hesse, E. (1990). Parent's unresolved traumatic experiences are related to infant disorganized/disoriented attachment status: Is frightened and/or frightening parental behavior the linking mechanism? In M. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti, & E. M. Cummings (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention (pp. 161182). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Main, M., & Hesse, E. (1992). In M. Ammaniti & D. Stern (Eds.), Attachment and psychoanalysis (pp. 86140). Rome: Gius, Laterza & Figli.
Main, M., & Hesse, E. (1992–2006). Frightened, threatening, dissociative, timid-deferential, sexualized, and disorganized parental behavior: A coding system for frightened/frightening (FR) parent–infant interactions. Unpublished manuscript, University of California at Berkeley.
Main, M., Hesse, E., & Kaplan, N. (2005). Predictability of attachment behavior and representational processes at 1, 6, and 19 years of age: The Berkeley longitudinal study. In K. E. Grossmann, K. Grossmann, & E. Waters (Eds.), Attachment from infancy to adulthood: The major longitudinal studies (pp. 245304). New York: Guilford Press.
Main, M., Kaplan, N., & Cassidy, J. (1985). Security in infancy, childhood and adulthood: A move to the level of representation. In I. Bretherton & E. Waters (Eds.), Growing points of attachment theory and research. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50, 66104.Google Scholar
Main, M., & Morgan, H. (1996). Disorganization and disorientation in infant Strange Situation behavior: Phenotypic resemblance to dissociative states? In L. Michelson & W. Ray (Eds.), Handbook of dissociation: Theoretical, empirical, and clinical perspectives (pp. 107138). New York: Plenum Press.
Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1986). Discovery of a new, insecure-disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern. In T. B. Brazelton & M. Yogman (Eds.), Affective development in infancy (pp. 95124). Norwood: Ablex.
Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1990). Procedures for identifying infants as disorganized/disoriented during the Ainsworth Strange Situation. In M. T. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti, & E. M. Cummings (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research and intervention (pp. 121160). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Main, M., & Stadtman, J. (1981). Infant response to rejection of physical contact by the mother: Aggression, avoidance and conflict. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 20, 292307.Google Scholar
Main, M., & Weston, D. R. (1982). Avoidance of the attachment figure in infancy: Descriptions and interpretations. In C. M. Parkes & J. Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), The place of attachment in human behavior (pp. 31–59, 932–940). New York: Basic Books.
Manassis, K., Bradley, S., Goldberg, S., Hood, J., & Swinson, R. P. (1994). Attachment in mothers with anxiety disorders and their children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 11061113.Google Scholar
Minde, K., & Hesse, E. (1996). The role of the Adult Attachment Interview in parent–infant psychotherapy: A case presentation. Infant Mental Health Journal, 17, 115126.Google Scholar
Mink, J. W. (1996). The basic ganglia: Focused selection and inhibition of competing motor programs. Progress in Neurobiology, 50, 381425.Google Scholar
Minsky, M. L., & Papert, S. A. (1988). Perceptrons: Expanded edition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Montoya, P., Campos, J. J., & Schandry, R. (2005). See red? Turn pale? Unveiling emotions through cardiovascular and hemodynamic changes. Spanish Journal of Psychology, 8, 7985.Google Scholar
Nijenhuis, E. R. S., Vanderlinden, J., & Spinhoven, P. (1998). Animal defensive reactions as a model from trauma-induced dissociative reactions. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 243260.Google Scholar
Ogawa, J. R., Sroufe, A. L., Weinfield, N. S., Carlson, E. A., & Egeland, B. (1997). Development and the fragmented self: Longitudinal study of dissociative symptomatology in a nonclinical sample. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 855879.Google Scholar
Ohman, A. (2005). The role of the amygdala in human fear: Automatic detection of threat. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 10, 953958.Google Scholar
Ohman, A., Flykt, A., & Lundqvist, D. (2000). Unconscious emotion: Evolutionary perspectives, psychophysiological data, and neuropsychological mechanisms. In R. D. Lane & L. Nadel (Eds.), The cognitive neuroscience of emotion (pp. 296327). New York: Oxford University Press.
Ohman, A., & Mineka, S. (2001). Fears, phobias, and preparedness: Toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning. Psychological Review, 108, 483522.Google Scholar
Prince, M. (1905/1978). The dissociation of a personality. New York: Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1905)
Prinz, J. J. (in press). A neurofunctional theory of consciousness. In A. Brook & K. Atkins (Eds.), Philosophy and neuroscience. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Putnam, F. W. (1985). Dissociation as a response to extreme trauma. In R. P. Kluft (Ed.), The childhood antecedents of multiple personality. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
Putnam, F. W. (1989). Diagnosis and treatment of multiple personality disorder. New York: Guilford Press.
Putnam, F. W. (1997). Dissociation in children and adolescents: A developmental perspective. New York: Guilford Press.
Putnam, F. W., Helmers, K., & Trickett, P. K. (1993). Development, reliability and validity of a child dissociation scale. Child Abuse and Neglect, 17, 731741.Google Scholar
Rifkin, A. (2005). Individual differences in response to the Adult Attachment Interview predict responses to neuropsychological testing, as well as both basal and laboratory cortisol. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California at Berkeley.
Rumelhart, D. E., & McClelland, J. L. (1986). Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition: Vol. 1. Foundations. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Schuengel, C. (1997). Attachment, loss, and maternal behavior: A study on intergenerational transmission. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Leiden University.
Schuengel, C., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Blom, M. (1999). Unresolved loss and infant disorganization: Links to frightening maternal behavior. In J. Solomon & C. George (Eds.), Attachment disorganization (pp. 7194). New York: Guilford Press.
Schuengel, C., van IJzendoorn, M., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (1999). Frightening, maternal behavior linking unresolved loss and disorganized infant attachment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 5463.Google Scholar
Siegel, D. J. (1992, February). Using the memories of childhood trauma in the treatment of adults. Paper presented at the American College of Psychiatrists Annual Conference, San Francisco, CA.
Solomon, J., & George, C. (1999). The place of disorganization in attachment theory: Linking classic observations with contemporary findings. In J. Solomon & C. George (Eds.), Attachment disorganization (pp. 332). New York: Guilford Press.
Spiegel, D. (1990). Hypnosis, dissociation and trauma: Hidden and overt observers. In J. L. Singer (Ed.), Repression and dissociation: Implications for personality theory, psychopathology and health (pp. 121142). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Squire, L. R. (1987). Memory and brain. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., Carlson, E. A., & Collins, W. A. (2005). The development of the person: The Minnesota study of risk and adaptation from birth to adulthood. New York: Guilford Press.
Sroufe, L. A., & Rutter, M. (1984). The domain of developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55, 1729.Google Scholar
Tellegen, A. (1992). Note of structure and naming of the MPQ Absorption Scale. Unpublished manuscript, University of Minnesota.
Tellegen, A., & Atkinson, G. (1974). Openness to absorbing and self-altering experiences (“absorption”), a trait related to hypnotic susceptibility. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 83, 268277.Google Scholar
True, M. (2003). Presentation in symposium on frightened/frightening parental behavior. Biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Tampa, FL.
True, M., Pisani, L., & Oumar, F. (2001). Infant–mother attachment among the Dogon in Mali. Child Development, 75, 14511466.Google Scholar
Vanderlinden, J., Van Dyck, R., Vandereycken, W., & Vertommen, H. (1991). Dissociative experiences in the general population in The Netherlands and Belgium: A study with Dissociative Questionnaire (DIS-Q). Dissociation, 4, 180184.Google Scholar
van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1995). Adult attachment representations, parental responsiveness, and infant attachment: A meta-analysis on the predictive validity of the adult attachment interview. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 387403.Google Scholar
van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (1996). Attachment representations in mothers, fathers, adolescents, and clinical groups: A meta-analytic search for normative data. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 821.Google Scholar
van IJzendoorn, M. H., Schuengel, C., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (1999). Disorganized attachment in early childhood: Meta-analysis of precursors, concomitants, and sequelae. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 225249.Google Scholar
Vorra, P., Papaligoura, Z., Dunn, J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Steele, H., & Kontopoulou, A. (2003). Early experiences and attachment relationships of Greek infants raised in residential group care. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 12081220.Google Scholar
Weinfield, N., Whaley, G., & Egeland, B. (2004). Continuity, discontinuity and coherence in attachment from infancy to late adolescence: Sequelae of organization and disorganization. Attachment and Human Development, 6, 7397.Google Scholar