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Long-term social mobility: research agenda and a case study (Berlin, 1825–1957)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 November 2008

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Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1996

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References

1 Sorokin, P., Social and cultural mobility (New York, 1959; first published 1929), 152–4.Google Scholar

2 Ibid., 152.

3 Ibid., 458.

4 Ibid., 418.

5 Glass, D. V., Social mobility in Britain (London, 1954)Google Scholar; Lipset, S. M. and Zetterberg, H. L., ‘A theory of social mobility’, in Lipset, S. M. and Bendix, R. eds., Social mobility in industrial society (Berkeley, 1959; first published 1956).Google Scholar

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9 The same happened in historical research as well; see Kaelble, H., Historical research on social mobility: Western Europe and the USA in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (London, 1981)Google Scholar; Kaelble, H., Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries: Europe and America in comparative perspective (Leamington Spa, 1985)Google Scholar; and Schüren, R., Soziale Mobilität: Muster, Veränderungen und Bedingungen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (St Katharinen, 1989).Google Scholar For other reviews, see Ganzeboom, H. B. G., Treiman, D. J., and Ultee, W. C., ‘Comparative intergenerational stratification research; three generations and beyond’, Annual Review of Sociology 17 (1991), 277302CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fukumoto, and Grusky, , ‘Social mobility and class structure’, 4067Google Scholar; and Erikson, R. and Goldthorpe, J. H., The constant flux: a study of class mobility in industrial societies (Oxford, 1992), 127.Google Scholar

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23 Kaelble, Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries.

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34 Mayer, K. U. and Müller, W., ‘Trendanalyse in der Mobilitätsforschung: Eine Replik auf Gerhard Kleining’, Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 23 (1971), 761–88Google Scholar; Mayer, K. U. and Müller, W., ‘Die Analyse von Mobilitätstrends: Anmerkungen zu einer Kontroverse über Forschungsdesign und Datenanalyse’, Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 24 (1972), 132–9.Google Scholar

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37 The same conclusion was drawn by Rishoy, T., ‘Metropolitan social mobility 1850–1950: the case of Copenhagen’, Quality and Quantity 5 (1971), 131–40, on the basis of three sets of data: military enrolment, marriage registers, and survey material. He looked at total mobility and studied two mobility indices.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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39 Treiman, D. J., ‘A standard occupational prestige scale of use with historical data’, Journal of Interdisciplinary History 7 (1976), 283304CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Treiman, D. J., Occupational prestige in comparative perspective (New York, 1977).Google Scholar

40 Sharlin, A., ‘From the study of social mobility to the study of society’, American Journal of Sociology 85 (1979), 338–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hauser, R. M., ‘Occupational status in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries’, Historical Methods 15 (1982), 111–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

41 Guest, et al. , ‘Mobility in the late 19th century United States’, 369–70 and 375.Google Scholar

42 Fukumoto, and Grusky, , ‘Social mobility and class structure’, 4067.Google Scholar

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44 Katz, , The people of Hamilton, 9.Google Scholar

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47 Kocka, J., ‘Family and class formation: intergenerational mobility and marriage patterns in nineteenth-century Westphalian towns’, Journal of Social History 17 (1984), 411–33Google Scholar; Kocka, J., ‘Problems of working-class formation in Germany: the early years, 1800–1875’, in Katznelson, I. and Zolberg, A. R. eds., Working-class formation: nineteenth-century patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, 1986), 279351.Google Scholar

48 Aminzade, R. and Hodson, R., ‘Social mobility in a mid-nineteenth-century French city’, American Sociological Review 47 (1982), 441–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

49 Fukumoto, and Grusky, , ‘Social mobility and class structure’, 4067. But compare Grusky, American social mobility, 72–4, on the distance between craftsmen and labourers in the USA.Google Scholar

50 Hobsbawm, E. J., ‘The labour aristocracy in nineteenth-century Britain’, in Hobsbawm, E. J. ed., Labouring men (London, 1964), 53, see also pp. 273–4Google Scholar; for assessments of the debate see Penn, and Dawkins, , ‘Structural transformations in the British class structure’, 200376,Google Scholar and Miles, and Vincent, , ‘Land of “boundless opportunities”?’, 4372.Google Scholar

51 Kaelble, Social mobility in the 19th and 20th centuries, chapter 3.

52 Leeuwen, and Maas, , ‘Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns’, 6679.Google Scholar

53 Zimm, A., Die Entwicklung des industriellen Standorts Berlin (Berlin, 1959)Google Scholar; Schmieder, E., ‘Wirtschaftsgeschichte Berlins im 19./20. Jahrhundert’, in Gandert, O. F. et al. eds., Heimatchronik Berlin (Cologne, 1962), 663762Google Scholar; Thaiheim, K. C., ‘Berlins wirtschaftliche Entwicklung nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg’, in Gander et at., Heimatchronik Berlin, 763866, and Schüren, Soziale Mobilität.Google Scholar

54 Schüren, , Soziale Mobilität, 42.Google Scholar

55 Calculated after the map in Zimm, Entwicklung des industriellen Standorts Berlin, 28.Google Scholar

56 Calculations based on Zimm, Entwicklung des industriellen Standorts Berlin.

57 Ibid., 125.

58 Thalheim, , ‘Berlins wirtschaftliche Entwicklung’, 802.Google Scholar

59 Ibid., 782.

60 Schüren, , Soziale Mobilität, 243Google Scholar; Schüren, R., ‘Intergenerational occupational and marital mobility in German cities in the nineteenth and early twentieth century’, in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 6891.Google Scholar

61 Kaelble, H. and Federspiel, R., Soziale Mobilität in Berlin 1825–1957 – Tabellen zur Mobilität, zu Heiratskreisen und zur Sozialstruktur (St Katharinen, 1990).Google Scholar

62 Other data sources exist, such as (auto)biographies (Roy, W. G., ‘Institutional governance and social cohesion: the internal organization of the American capitalist class, 1886–1905’, Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 3 (1984), 147–71Google Scholar; Miles, , ‘How “open” was nineteenth-century British society?’, 1839Google Scholar; Vincent, D., ‘Mobility, bureaucracy and careers in early-twentieth-century Britain’, in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 217–39)Google Scholar; company records with information on careers (Gribaudi, , ‘Itinéraires personelles et stratégies familiales’, 1213–32Google Scholar; Savage, M., ‘Career mobility and class formation: British banking workers and the lower middle classes’, in Miles and Vincent, Building European society, 206–16)Google Scholar; catechetical examination records (Kronborg, B. and Nilson, T., ‘Social mobility, migration and family building in urban environments’, in Akerman, S. et al. eds., Chance and change: social and economic studies in historical demography in the Baltic area (Odense, 1978), 227–37)Google Scholar; city directories and electoral and tax registers (B. de, Vries, Electoraat en elite: Sociale structuur en sociale mobiliteit in Amsterdam 1850–1895 (Amsterdam, 1986)Google Scholar; Leeuwen, and Maas, , ‘Log-linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns’, 6679Google Scholar; Pinol, , ‘Occupational and social mobility in Lyon’, 116–37)Google Scholar; family trees (Weiss, V., ‘Sozialstruktur und soziale Mobilität der Landbevölkerung: das Beispiel Sachsen 1550–1880’, Zeitschrift für Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie 39 (1991), 2443)Google Scholar; guilds and apprenticeship records (Elliott, V. B., ‘Mobility and marriage in preindustrial England: a demographic and social structural analysis of geographic and social mobility and aspects of marriage, 1570–1690’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1978)Google Scholar; Burrage, M. C., ‘At sixes and sevens: occupational status in the city of London from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century’, American Sociological Review 46 (1981), 375–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rappaport, S., Worlds within worlds: structures of life in sixteenth-century London (Cambridge, 1989), 285376CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bearman, P. S. and Deane, G., ‘The structure of opportunity: middle-class mobility in England, 1548–1689’, American Journal of Sociology 98 (1992), 3066)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; military registers (Papy, M., ‘Professions et mobilité à Oloron sous la monarchie censitaire d'après les listes du recrutement militaire’, Revue d'Histoire Economique et Sociale 2 (1971), 225–64Google Scholar; Rishoy, , ‘Metropolitan social mobility’, 131–40)Google Scholar; notarial records (Daumard, , ‘Une source d'histoire sociale’, 5278Google Scholar; Daumard, and Furet, , ‘Méthodes de l'histoire sociale’, 676–93Google Scholar; Daumard, Structures et relations sociales); school records (Sanderson, M., ‘Literacy and social mobility in the Industrial Revolution’, Past and Present 56 (1972), 75104). However, these other data sources are less often used.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

63 Hardy has estimated, using data from Indianapolis in 1850–1860, that of all persons in the ten years between the censuses 10 per cent died, 30–40 per cent migrated, and 50–55 per cent were ‘persisters’ who stayed in town. Of these persisters three-fifths were successfully linked and two-fifths were missed, either because of linkage problems or because they were not registered by the census-takers. Hardy estimated selection effects in occupational mobility using linked censuses, and concluded that no selection effects can be discerned (Hardy, M. A., ‘Estimating selection effects in occupational mobility in a 19th-century city’, American Sociological Review 54 (1989), 834–43).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

64 Kaelble, and Federspiel, , Soziale Mobilität in Berlin 1825–1957, viiiGoogle Scholar; compare Schüren, , Soziale Mobilität, 4445 and 90.Google Scholar

65 Kaelble, and Federspiel, , Soziale Mobilität in Berlin 1825–1957, vi.Google Scholar

66 Schüren, , Soziale Mobilität, 38 and 95.Google Scholar

67 The occupational grouping is based on a one-dimensional 15-group ordering by the German team (Kaelble, and Federspiel, , Soziale Mobilität in Berlin 1825–1957, 4659, 90104). Printing errors have been corrected.Google Scholar The 15 groups have been collapsed according to the Goodman procedure (Goodman, L. A., ‘Criteria for determining whether certain categories in a cross-classification table should be combined with special reference to occupational categories in an occupational mobility table’, American Journal of Sociology 87 (1981), 612–50). Particulars are available from the authors.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

68 Craftsmen who referred to themselves as ‘master’ are included in the category of artisans. Those craftsmen explicitly stating that they were not masters and those with unknown status are included in the category of small craftsmen and shopkeepers (Kaelble, and Federspiel, , Soziale Mobilität in Berlin 1825–1957).Google Scholar

69 Erikson, and Goldthorpe, , Constant fluxGoogle Scholar; Xie, Y., ‘The log-multiplicative layer effect model for comparing mobility tables’, American Sociological Review 57 (1992), 380–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

70 The three-way interaction of origin, destination, and time, which would allow the association to vary between tables, is not included.

71 Erikson, and Goldthorpe, , Constant flux, 91–2.Google Scholar The model has to be estimated in two steps. First, an iterative procedure is used to define a ‘general pattern of association’ for all points in time. Second, the change in association is modelled by one parameter for each table, describing the deviation from the general association.

72 Some of the tables contain zero in the marginal distributions, which causes estimation problems. As is customary in these cases, the content of each cell was increased by 0.5. See for example Aminzade, and Hodson, , ‘Social mobility in a mid-nineteenth-century French city’, 452Google Scholar, and Fukumoto, and Grusky, , ‘Social mobility and class structure’, 4067.Google Scholar

73 Raftery, A., ‘Choosing models for cross-classifications’, American Sociological Review 51 (1986), 145–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

74 In the case of the L2/df measure some significance testing is possible – between nested models – but no conventional significance tests are known for Bic.

75 Erikson, and Goldthorpe, , Constant flux, 90.Google Scholar

76 Sorokin, , Social and cultural mobilityGoogle Scholar; Tilly, C., The Vendée (Cambridge, Mass., 1964), 93–9Google Scholar; Griffen, and Griffen, , Natives and newcomers, 54Google Scholar; Levine, J. H., Exceptions are the rule: an inquiry into the methods in the social sciences (Boulder, 1993), 249–82Google Scholar; Sharlin, , ‘From the study of social mobility to the study of society’, 338–60Google Scholar; Horan, P. M., ‘Occupational mobility and historical social structure’, Social Science History 9 (1985), 2547.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

77 Goodman, ‘Simple models’; see for examples in historical research Grusky and Fukumoto, ‘Sociological approach to historical social mobility’; Guest, Landale, and McCann, ‘Mobility in the late 19th century United States’; Leeuwen and Maas, ‘Log- linear analysis of changes in mobility patterns’.

78 Before these models can be tested, assumptions have to be made as to how to treat the diagonal cells of the mobility table. In this case, diagonal cells have been treated separately from non-diagonal cells, on the assumption that the various occupational classes show different degrees of immobility which do not change over time. Other assumptions produce slightly different parameter estimates, but the conclusions remain the same.

79 Compare Fukumoto and Grusky, ‘Social mobility and class structure’; Ganzeboom, Luijkx, and Treiman, ‘Class mobility in comparative perspective’; and Hauser, ‘Occupational Status’.

80 The conclusions concerning changes in association (presented in section VIII) still hold when using heterogeneous class positions in the models. Farmers were excluded from these analyses, because their class position is undefined in the later tables which contain no, or very few, farmers. Conclusions based on analyses with heterogeneous class positions did not differ from those based on analyses with homogeneous class positions.

81 Another possibility would be to carry out separate analyses for the tables before 1906 and the tables after 1926. However, an analysis including all tables and correcting for the measurement breach has two advantages. Technically, it is a more powerful test of changes in relative mobility. Moreover, research has shown that if relative mobility changes, this happens slowly. Therefore, data covering a long period are necessary to detect any change.

82 It is, for instance, possible that the turbulent history of Berlin produced a higher openness than in more tranquil regions. This does not invalidate the conclusions for Berlin, and, moreover, only more historical research could demonstrate whether this is true or not.