Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-gtxcr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-20T11:00:17.872Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Down's Syndrome and Alzheimer's disease: a review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 July 2009

C. Oliver  and
A. J. Holland
C. Oliver
Affiliation:
Institute of Psychiatry, London
A. J. Holland*
Affiliation:
Institute of Psychiatry, London
*
1Address for correspondence: Dr A. J. Holland, Genetic Unit, Institute of Psychiatry, De Crespigny Park, Denmark Hill, London SE5 8AF.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Synopsis

Neuropathological change found in nearly all individuals with Down's Syndrome over the age of 35 years closely resembles that of Alzheimer's disease. The extent to which dementia occurs as a result of this change is unclear, and the studies which have investigated presumed cognitive deficits are reviewed. The theories put forward to explain the association between these two disorders and their possible significance to the understanding of the aetiology of Alzheimer's disease are discussed.

Type
Research Article
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 16 , Issue 2 , May 1986 , pp. 307 - 322
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1986

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aarskog, D. (1969). Autoimmune thyroid disease in children with mongolism. Archives of Diseases in Childhood 44, 454–460.Google Scholar
Alzheimer, A. (1907). Über eine eigenartige Erkrankung der Hirnrinde. Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie und Psychisch Gerichtliche Medizin 64, 146–148.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (1980). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (third edn). APA: Washington D.C.Google Scholar
Anderson, B. H., Breinburg, D., Downes, M. J., Green, P. J., Tomlinson, B. E., Ulrich, J., Wood, J. N. & Kahn, J. (1982). Monoclonal antibodies show that neurofibrillary tangles and neurofliaments share antigenic determinants. Nature 298. 84–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Antonarakis, S. E., Kittur, S. D., Metaxotou, C., Watkins, P. C. & Patel, A. S. (1985). Analysis of DNA haplotypes suggests a genetic predisposition to trisomy 21 associated with DNA sequences on chromosome 21. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 82, 3360–3364.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ball, M. J. & Nuttall, K. (1980). Neurofibrillary tangles, granulovacuolar degeneration and neurone loss in Down's Syndrome: quantitative comparison with Alzheimer's dementia. Annals of Neurology 7, 462–465.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barker, M. G. & Lawson, J. S. (1968). Nominal aphasia in dementia. British Journal of Psychiatry 114, 1351–1356.Google Scholar
Bartley, J. & Epstein, C. J. (1980). Gene dosage effect for glycinamide ribonucleotide synthetase in human fibroblasts trisomic for trisomy 21. Biochemistry and Biophysics Research Communication 93, 1286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benda, C. E. (1960). The Child with Mongolism. Grune and Stratton:New York.Google Scholar
Breg, W. R. (1977). A review of recent progress in research. Pathobiology Annals 7, 257–303.Google ScholarPubMed
Brooksbank, B. W. L. & Balazs, R. (1983). Superoxide dismutase and lipoperoxidation in Down's Syndrome fetal brain. Lancet i, 881–882.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buckton, K. E., Whalley, L. J., Lee, M. & Christie, J. E. (1983). Chromosome change in Alzheimer's presenile dementia. Journal of Medical Genetics 20, 46–51.Google Scholar
Burger, P. C. & Vogel, F. S. (1973). The development of the pathologic changes of Alzheimer's disease and senile dementia in patients with Down's Syndrome. American Journal of Pathology 73, 457–468.Google Scholar
Carr, J. (1970). Mental and motor development in young mongol children. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 14, 205–220.Google ScholarPubMed
Carter, G. & Jancar, J. (1982). Mortality in the Mentally Handicapped: a Fifty Year Survey (1930–1980). Frenchay Health Authority.Google Scholar
Collman, R. D. & Stoller, A. (1963). A life table for mongols in Victoria, Australia. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 7, 53–59.Google Scholar
Cook, R. H., Schneck, S. A. & Clark, D. B. (1981). Twins with Alzheimer's disease. Archives of Neurology 38, 300–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corbett, J. (1985). Is Down's Syndrome a progressive condition? Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 78, 499–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corsellis, J. A. N. & Evans, P. H. (1965). The relation of stenosis of the extracranial cerebral arteries to mental disorder and cerebral degeneration in old age. In Proceedings of the Vth International Congress of Neuropathology (ed. Lühy, F. and Bischoff, A.), pp. 546–548. Excerpta Medica: Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Countryman, P. I., Heddle, J. A. & Crawford, E. (1977). The repair of X-ray induced chromosomal damage in trisomy 21 and normal diploid lymphocytes. Cancer Research 37, 52–58.Google Scholar
Coyle, J. T., Price, D. L. & Delong, M. R. (1983). Alzheimer's disease: a disorder of cortical cholinergic innervation. Science 219, 1184–1189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crapper, D. R., Dalton, A. L., Skopitz, M., Eng, P., Scott, J. H. & Hachinski, V. (1975). Alzheimer's degeneration in Down's Syndrome. Archives of Neurology 32, 618.Google Scholar
Dalton, A. L. & Crapper, D. R. (1977). Down's Syndrome and ageing of the brain. In Research to Practice in Mental Retardation: Vol. 3, Biomedical Aspects (ed. Mittler, P.), pp. 391–400. University Park Press: Baltimore.Google Scholar
Dalton, A. L., Crapper, D. R. & Schlotterer, G. R. (1974). Alzheimer's disease in Down's Syndrome: visual retention deficits. Cortex 10, 366–377.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davidson, E. A. & Robertson, E. E. (1955). Alzheimer's disease with acne rosacea in one of identical twins. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 18, 72–77.Google Scholar
DeBusk, F. L. (1972). The Hutchinson—Gilford Syndrome. Report of 4 cases and review of the literature. Journal of Pediatrics 80, 697–724.Google Scholar
Domino, G. & Newman, D. (1965). Relationship of physical stigmata to intellectual subnormality in mongoloids. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 69, 541–547.Google Scholar
Edwards, J. H. (1978). Skin age in Down's Syndrome: a note on the findings of Murdoch and Evans. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 22, 223.Google ScholarPubMed
Ellis, W. G., McCulloch, J. R. & Corley, C. L. (1974). Presenile dementia in Down's Syndrome: ultrastructural identity with Alzheimer's disease. Neurology (Minneapolis) 24, 101–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Epstein, C. J. (1983). Down's Syndrome and Alzheimer's disease: implications and approaches. In Biological Aspects of Alzheimer's Disease (ed. Katzman, R.), pp. 169–182. Banbury Report No. 15. Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory: New York.Google Scholar
Epstein, C. J., McManu, N. H., Epstein, L. B., Branca, A. A., D'Alessandro, S. B. & Baglioni, C. (1982). Direct evidence that the gene product of the human chromosome 21 locus, IFRC, is the interferon-α receptor. Biochemistry and Biophysics Research Communication 107, 1060.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Epstein, L. B. & Epstein, C. J. (1980). T-lymphocyte function and sensitivity to interferon in trisomy 21. Cellular Immunology 51, 303–318.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fogelman, C. J. (ed.) (1975). AAMD Adaptive Behaviour Scale Manual. American Association on Mental Deficiency: Washington D.C.Google Scholar
Forssman, H. & Akesson, H. O. (1965). Mortality in patients with Down's Syndrome. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 9, 146.Google Scholar
Francis, S. H. (1970). Behaviour of low grade institutionalized mongoloids: changes with age. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 75, 92–101.Google Scholar
Fraser, J. & Mitchell, A. (1876). Kalmuc idiocy: report of a case with autopsy with notes on 62 cases. Journal of Mental Science 22, 161.Google Scholar
Gallagher, R. P. & Lowry, R. C. (1975). Longevity in Down's Syndrome in British Columbia. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 19, 157.Google Scholar
Gessell, A. & Amatruda, C. S. (1941). Developmental Diagnosis: Normal and Abnormal Child Development. Harper and Row: New York.Google Scholar
Gibson, D. (1978). Down's Syndrome: the Psychology of Mongolism. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.Google Scholar
Goudsmit, J., Morrow, C. H., Asher, D. M., Yanagihara, R. T., Masters, C. L., Gibbs, C. J. & Gajdusek, D. C. (1980). Evidence for and against the transmissibility of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 30, 945–950.Google Scholar
Guzzetta, F. (1972). Cockayne—Neil—Dingwall Syndrome. Handbook of Clinical Neurology 13, 431–440.Google Scholar
Haberland, C. (1969). Alzheimer's disease in Down's Syndrome: cliniconeurological observations. Acta Neurologica Belgica 69, 369–380.Google Scholar
Heston, L. L. (1977). Alzheimer's disease, trisomy 21, and myeloproliferative disorders: associations suggesting a genetic diathesis. Science 196, 322–323.Google Scholar
Heston, L. L. & Mastri, A. R. (1977). Genetics of Alzheimer's disease: associations with hematological malignancies and Down's Syndrome. Archives of General Psychiatry 34, 976–981.Google Scholar
Heston, L. L., Lowther, D. L. & Leventhal, C. M. (1966). Alzheimer's disease: a family study. Archives of Neurology 15, 225–233.Google Scholar
Heston, L. L., Mastri, A. R., Anderson, E. & White, J. (1981).Dementia of the Alzheimer type: clinical genetics, natural history and associated conditions. Archives of General Psychiatry 38, 1085–1090.Google Scholar
Hewitt, K. E., Carter, G. & Jancar, J. (1985). Ageing in Down's Syndrome. British Journal of Psychiatry 147, 58–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heyman, A., Wilkinson, W. E., Hurwitz, B. J., Schmechel, D., Sigmon, A. H., Weinberg, T., Helms, M. J. & Swift, M. (1983). Alzheimer's disease: genetic aspects and associated clinical disorders. Annals of Neurology 14, 507–516.Google Scholar
Heyman, A., Wilkinson, W. E., Stafford, J. A., Helms, M. J., Sigmon, A. H. & Weinberg, T. (1984). Alzheimer's disease: a study of epidemiological aspects. Annals of Neurology 15, 335–341.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunter, R., Dayan, A. D. & Wilson, J. (1972). Alzheimer's disease in one monozygotic twin. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 35. 707–710.Google Scholar
Inglis, J. (1957). A experimental study of learning and memory function in elderly psychiatric patients. Journal of Mental Science 103, 796–803.Google Scholar
Inglis, J. (1959). Learning, retention and conceptual usage in elderly patients with memory disorder. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology 59, 210–215.Google Scholar
Iqbal, K. (1979). Neurofibrous proteins in ageing and dementia.Presented at the International Society for Neurochemistry satellite meeting on ageing of the brain and dementia,Florence.Google Scholar
Jervis, G. A. (1948). Early senile dementia mongoloid idiocy. American Journal of Psychiatry 105, 102–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnston, J. T. & Olley, J. G. (1971). Behavioural comparisons of mongoloid and non-mongoloid retarded persons. A review. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 75, 546–559.Google Scholar
Katzman, R. (1976). The prevalence and malignancy of Alzheimer disease. Archives of Neurology 33, 217–218.Google Scholar
Lancet (1985). Editorial: Ageing in Down's Syndrome; ii, 855–856.Google Scholar
Larsson, T., Sjörgren, T. & Jacobson, G. (1963). Senile dementia. A clinical, sociomedical and genetic study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 39, Suppl. 167.Google Scholar
Levinson, A., Friedman, A. & Stamps, F. (1955). Variability of mongolism. Paediatrics 16, 43–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liss, L., Shim, C., Thase, M., Smeltzer, D., Maloone, J. & Couri, D. (1980). The relationship between Down's Syndrome and dementia Alzheimer's type. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology 39, 371.Google Scholar
Loesch-Mdzewska, D. (1968). Some aspects of the neurology of Down's Syndrome. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 12, 237–246.Google ScholarPubMed
Malamud, N. (1966). The neuropathology of mental retardation. In Prevention and Treatment of Mental Retardation (ed. Philips, I.), pp. 24–32. Basic Books: New York.Google Scholar
Martin, G. M. (1978). Genetic syndromes in man with potential relevance to the pathobiology of ageing. In Genetic Effects on Ageing, Birth Defects, Original Article Series (ed. Bergsma, D., Harrison, D. E. and Paul, N. W.), pp. 5–39. The National Foundation – March of Dimes/A.R. Liss: New York.Google Scholar
Martin, J. M., Kellett, J. M. & Kahn, J. (1981). Aneuploidy in cultured human lymphocytes: II. A comparison between senescence and dementia. Age and Ageing 10, 24–28.Google Scholar
Mikkelsen, M. (1966). Familial Down's Syndrome. Annals of Human Genetics 30, 125–146.Google Scholar
Miller, E. (1971). On the nature of the memory disorder in presenile dementia. Neuropsychologia 9, 75–78.Google Scholar
Miller, E. (1973). Short and long term memory in patients with presenile dementia (Alzheimer's disease). Psychological Medicine 3, 221–224.Google Scholar
Miller, E. (1981). The nature of the cognitive deficit in senile dementia. In Clinical Aspects of Alzheimer's Disease and Senile Dementia (ed. Miller, N. E. and Cohen, G. D.), pp. 103–120. Raven Press: New York.Google Scholar
Miniszek, N. A. (1983). Development of Alzheimer's disease in Down's Syndrome individuals. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 87, 377–385.Google ScholarPubMed
Murdoch, J. C. & Adams, H. (1977). Reply to W. Hughes. British Medical Journal ii, 702.Google Scholar
Murdoch, J. C. & Evans, J. H. (1978). An objective in vitro study of ageing in the skin of patients with Down's Syndrome. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 22, 131.Google Scholar
Murdoch, J. C., Rodger, J. C., Rao, S. S., Fletcher, C. D. & Dunnigan, M. G. (1977). Down's Syndrome: an atheroma free model. British Medical Journal ii, 226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nakamura, H. (1961). Nature of institutionalized adult mongoloid intelligence. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 66, 456–458.Google ScholarPubMed
Nee, L. E., Polinsky, R. J., Eldridge, R., Weingartner, H., Smallberg, S. & Ebert, M. (1983). A family with histologically confirmed Alzheimer's disease. Archives of Neurology 40, 203–208.Google Scholar
Neumann, M. A. (1966). Langdon Down Syndrome and Alzheimer's Disease: a Growing Concern. NIMR: Ontario.Google Scholar
Nielsen, J. (1963). Gerontopsychiatric period-prevalence investigation in a geographically delimited population. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 38, 307–339.Google Scholar
O'Hara, P. T. (1972). Electron microscopical study of the brain in Down's Syndrome. Brain 95, 681–684.Google Scholar
Olson, M. I. & Shaw, C. M. (1969). Presenile dementia and Alzheimer's disease in mongolism. Brain 92, 147–156.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Owens, D., Dawson, J. C. & Losin, S. (1971). Alzheimer's disease in Down's Syndrome. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 75, 606–612.Google ScholarPubMed
Paulson, G. W. (1977). The neurological examination in dementia. In Dementia (ed. Wells, C. E.), pp. 169–188. F. A. Davies: Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Penrose, L. S. (1963). The Biology of Mental Defect (revised edn). Grune and Stratton: New York.Google Scholar
Penrose, L. S. & Smith, G. F. (1966). Down's Anomaly. Churchill: London.Google Scholar
Philpot, M., Colgan, J., Levy, R., Holland, A., Mirakian, R., Richardson, C. A. & Bottazzo, G. F. (1985). Prolactin cell autoantibodies and Alzheimer's Disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 48, 287–288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pogo, B. G. T. & Elizan, T. S. (1985). Search for viral DNA sequences in Alzheimer brain tissue. Lancet ii, 978–979.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pouplard, A., Emile, J. & Vincent-Pineau, F. (1983). Circulating human pituitary prolactin cell autoantibodies and Alzheimer's Disease. Revue Neurologique (Paris) 139, 178–191.Google Scholar
Pozsonyi, J., Gibson, D. & Zarfas, D. E. (1964). Skeletal maturation in mongolism (Down's Syndrome). Journal of Paediatrics 64, 75–78.Google Scholar
Rarick, G. L. & Seefeldt, V. (1974). Observations from longitudinal data on growth of stature and sitting height of children with Down's Syndrome. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 18, 63–78.Google ScholarPubMed
Reid, A. H. & Aungle, P. G. (1974). Dementia in ageing mentally defectives: a clinical psychiatric study. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 18, 15–23.Google Scholar
Reid, A. H., Maloney, A. F. J. & Aungle, P. G. (1978). Dementia in ageing mental defectives: a clinical and neuropathological study. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 22, 233–241.Google ScholarPubMed
Richards, B. W. & Siddiqui, A. Q. (1980). Age and mortality trends in residents of an institution for the mentally handicapped. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 24, 99–105.Google Scholar
Richards, B. W. & Sylvester, P. E. (1969). Mortality trends in mental deficiency institutions. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 13, 276–292.Google Scholar
Ropper, A. H. & Williams, R. S. (1980). Relationship between plaques, tangles and dementia in Down's Syndrome. Neurology 30, 639–644.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosner, F., Ong, B. H., Paine, R. S. & Mahanand, D. (1965). Biochemical differentiation of trisomic Down's Syndrome (mongolism) from that due to translocation. New England Journal of Medicine 273, 1356–1361.Google Scholar
St Clair, D. & Blackwood, D. (1985). Premature senility in Down's Syndrome. Lancet ii, 34.Google Scholar
Sand, T., Mellgren, S. I. & Hestnes, A. (1983). Primitive reflexes in Down's Syndrome. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 27, 39–44.Google Scholar
Sara, V. R., Gustavson, K. H., Anneren, G., Hall, K. & Wetterberg, L. (1983). Somatomedins in Down's Syndrome. Biological Psychiatry 18, 803–811.Google Scholar
Schneck, M. K., Reisberg, B. & Ferris, S. H. (1982). An overview of current concepts of Alzheimer's disease. American Journal of Psychiatry 139, 165–173.Google Scholar
Schochet, S. S. (1973). Neurofibrillary tangles in patients with Down's Syndrome: a light and electron microscopic study. Acta Neuro-pathologica 23, 342–346.Google Scholar
Seger, R., Buchinger, G. & Stroder, J. (1971). On the influence of age on immunity in Down's Syndrome. European Journal of Paediatrics 124, 77–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinet, P. M. (1982). Metabolism of oxygen derivatives in Down's Syndrome. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 396, 83–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sinex, E. M. & Merril, C. R. (1982). Editors: Alzheimer's disease, Down's Syndrome and Aging. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 396.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sjögren, T., Sjögren, H. & Lindgren, A. G. H. (1952). Morbus Alzheimer and Morbus Pick. A genetic, clinical and pathoanatomical study. Acta Psychiatrica et Neurologica Scandinavica Suppl. 82.Google Scholar
Solitaire, G. B. & Lamarche, J. B. (1966). Alzheimer's disease and senile dementia as seen in mongoloids: neuropathological observations. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 70, 840–848.Google Scholar
Soltan, H. C., Wiens, R. G. & Sergovich, F. R. (1964). Genetic studies and chromosome analysis in families with mongolism (Down's Syndrome) in more than one member. Acta Genetica (Basel) 14, 251–264.Google Scholar
Sourander, P. & Sjögren, H. (1970). The concept of Alzheimer's disease and its clinical implications. In CIBA Foundation Symposium: AD and Related Conditions (ed. Wolstenholme, G. E. W. and O'Connor, M.), pp. 11–36. Churchill: London.Google Scholar
Stowens, D. (1973). Down's Syndrome and acute leukaemia. Lancet i, 53–54.Google Scholar
Struwe, F. (1929). Histopathologische Untersuchungen über Entstehung und Wesen der senilen Plaques. Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie 122, 291.Google Scholar
Sylvester, P. E. (1984). Ageing in the mentally retarded. In Scientific Studies in Mental Retardation (ed. Dobbing, J., Clarke, A. D. B., Corbett, J. A., Hogg, J. and Robinson, R. O.), pp. 259–277. Royal Society of Medicine/Macmillan Press: London.Google Scholar
Takashima, S. & Becker, L. E. (1985). Basal ganglia calcification in Down's Syndrome. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 48, 61–64.Google Scholar
Tangye, S. R. (1979). The EEG and incidence of epilepsy in Down's Syndrome. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 23, 17–24.Google ScholarPubMed
Thase, M. E. (1982). Longevity and mortality in Down's Syndrome. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 26, 177–192.Google Scholar
Thase, M. E., Liss, L., Smeltzer, D. & Maloon, J. (1982). Clinical evaluation of dementia in Down's Syndrome: a preliminary report. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 26, 239–244.Google ScholarPubMed
Thase, M. E., Tigner, R., Smeltzer, D. & Liss, L. (1984). Age-related neuropsychological deficits in Down's Syndrome.Biological Psychiatry 4, 571–585.Google Scholar
Tomlinson, B. E., Blessed, G. & Roth, M. (1970). Observations on the brains of demented old people. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 11, 205–242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Veall, R. M. (1974). The prevalence of epilepsy among mongols related to age. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 19, 99–106.Google Scholar
Verhaart, W. J. C. & Jelgersma, H. C. (1952). Early senile dementia in mongolian idiocy. Description of a case. Folia Psychiatrica Neerlandica 55, 453–459.Google Scholar
Vora, S. & Francke, U. (1981). Assignment of the human gene for liver-type 6-phosphofrutokinase isozyme (PFKL) to chromosome 21 by using somatic cell hybrids and monoclonal anti-L antibody. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 78, 3738–3742.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walford, R. L. (1982). Immunological studies of Down's Syndrome and Alzheimer's Disease. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 396, 95–106.Google Scholar
Weinreb, H. J. (1985). Fingerprint patterns in Alzheimer's disease. Archives of Neurology 42, 50–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whalley, L. J. (1982). The dementia of Down's Syndrome and its relevance to the aetiological studies of Alzheimer's disease. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 396, 39–53.Google Scholar
Whalley, L. J., Urbaniak, S. J., Darg, C., Peutherer, J. F. & Christie, J. E. (1980). Histocompatibility antigens and antibodies to viral and other antigens in Alzheimer's presenile dementia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 61, 1–7.Google Scholar
Whalley, L. J., Carothers, A. D., Collyer, S., De May, R. & Frackiewicz, A. (1982). A study of familial factors in Alzheimer's disease. British Journal of Psychiatry 140, 249–256.Google Scholar
Wisniewski, K. E., Howe, J., Gwyn-Williams, D. & Wisniewski, H. M. (1978). Precocious ageing and dementia in patients with Down's Syndrome. Biological Psychiatry 13, 619–627.Google Scholar
Wisniewski, K. E., Jervis, G. A., Moretz, R. C. & Wisniewski, H. M. (1979). Alzheimer's neurofibrillary tangles in diseases other than senile and presenile dementia. Annals of Neurology 5, 288–294.Google Scholar
Wisniewski, K. E., French, J. H., Rosen, J. F., Kozlowski, P. B., Tenner, M. & Wisniewski, H. M. (1982). Basal ganglia calcification (BCG) in Down's Syndrome (DS)–another manifestation of premature aging. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 396, 179–189.Google Scholar
Wisniewski, K. E., Wisniewski, H. M. & Wen, G. Y. (1985). Occurrence of neuropathological changes and dementia of Alzheimer's disease in Down's Syndrome. Annals of Neurology 17, 278–282.Google Scholar
Wright, A. F. & Whalley, L. J. (1984). Genetics, ageing and dementia. British Journal of Psychiatry 145, 20–38.Google Scholar
Yates, C. M., Simpson, J., Maloney, A. F. J., Gordon, A. & Reid, A. H. (1980). Alzheimer-like cholinergic deficiency in Down's Syndrome. Lancet ii, 979.Google Scholar
Yates, C. M., Ritchie, I. M., Simpson, J., Maloney, A. F. J. & Gordon, A. (1981). Noradrenaline in Alzheimer type dementia and Down Syndrome. Lancet ii, 39–40.Google Scholar